청대 검동남(黔東南) 지역의 개토귀류(改土歸流)와 묘족(苗族) 사회의 변화

Abstract

This study reviewed the administrative reorganization of Qiandongnan, Guizhou in the Qing Dynasty and changes in the society of the Miao people focusing on the operating status of “gaitu guiliu.” The results are as follows. Generally, negative effects of Tusi (土司, native officials) have been discussed as the cause of gaitu guiliu. That is, Tusi with hereditary power possessed an absolute majority of land, and pressed the natives (土民) financially and wielded their power to have the people under their control. Therefore, the main purpose of gaitu guiliu was to be rid of Tusi, who had been an obstacle for the benign government of the emperor, since the natives who had been suffering under the oppression of Tusi should also enjoy benefits from the emperor. However, the original Tusi system was for giving non-Han people, who were difficult for the emperor to control directly due to reasons including language and climate, the status of head in the tribute payment and other duties. This can be considered the product of compromise with mutual interests satisfied. Therefore, conducting gaitu guiliu to eliminate the evil effects of Tusi was nothing but an ostensible reason. As seen in preceding research, it is undeniable that the Tusi exploited the natives using their absolute power. However, this seems insufficient to explain why the Miao people strongly resisted gaitu guiliu. The authority of Tusi was very weak in the Qiandongnan area of Guizhou, and there were numerous societies without Tusi, which were also called “Sheng Miao” (生苗, Miao people not affected by Chinese culture). Actually, the fact that Ortai (鄂爾泰), one of the major figures who promoted gaitu guiliu, regarded Miao people in Guizhou, where the power of Tusi was weak, as more dangerous than Yunnan (雲南), where Tusi had strong power, clearly shows that gaitu guiliu was not simply due to the negative effects of Tusi. Consequently, unlike the Shu Miao (熟苗, Miao people affected by Chinese culture) who were under the control of Tusi, the Sheng Miao ended up being expelled from their home area due to gaitu guiliu. This is why they chose to firmly resist. In the Qing Dynasty, the Tusi system was abolished through gaitu guiliu and replaced with “liuguan” (流官). Despite the administrative reorganization, Qiandongnan faced resistance by the Miao people and difficulties in ruling the society directly. Therefore, Qiandongnan decided to control them indirectly through Tuguan (土官), Tumu (土 目), and Tongshi (通事), which were under the county. Moreover, Qiandongnan changed the Sheng Miao region that had no Tusi by introducing a new Tusi system. Started from the concept of “Zhongwaiyiti” (中外一體), or China and non-China becoming one, gaitu guiliu instead caused “Zhongwai geli” (中外隔離), or China and non-China being separated). By dividing the Han/non-Han world so not to stir the ethnic feelings in the Miao people, the Qing Dynasty showed double sides by limiting the migration of Han people (漢族) to the Miao people’s region and promoting the Hanification (漢化) of Miao society. Meanwhile, with the gradual increase of Han immigrants, the Miao people’s society changed significantly. As for Qiandongnan, agricultural areas increased greatly due to the expansion of Tuntian (屯田), and cultivation of cash crops such as raw cotton grew. For the downstream region of Qingshuijiang (淸水江) in particular, forest management became a significant industry due to the rich and high-quality lumber resources. The extant trove of contract documents relating to forest management in the Qingshuijiang basin shows the scale of the forest industry at that time. Through forest management, including that by the Jiang (姜氏) family in Wendouzhai (文斗寨), some people made fortunes. On the other hand, other people lost their territory (田土) and forest due to exploitation by Han immigrants or merchants. They ended up becoming peasants and made a living by working in forest management or hard labor, such as logging. This means that after gaitu guiliu, the society of the Miao people was not uniformly changed. Complaints in the Miao society that had lost the means of production included instability that could erupt anytime. This was one of the causes for the Qing Dynasty to bring division within the governing system.