근대 영국 자유무역의 특성
Peculiarities of free trade in modern Britain
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자유무역은 근대 세계를 주도한 영국 경제체계에서 핵심 요소들 중 하나였고, 특히 영제국의 절정기였던 빅토리아 시대를 규정짓는 중심 개념이었다. 1840년대 후반의 곡물법과 항해법 폐지는 흔히 자유무역 시대의 도래를 알리는 당연하고도 확실한 선언으로 간주돼왔다. 중상주의와 보호무역을 제치고 등장한 자유무역은 20세기 초 영국의 경제위상이 결정적으로 흔들릴 때까지 강력하고도 확고한 힘과 영향력을 행사한 것으로 이해돼왔다. 그러나 더 자세히 살펴보면, 자유무역의 이러한 확실성과 강력함은 수정될 필요가 있다. 첫째, 자유무역이 무엇인가에 대한 정의가 유동적이고 불분명했다. 자유무역이 단지 관세장벽의 유무나 고저를 기준으로 규정된 개념인지, 아니면 부과된 관세가 국내산업의 보호를 위한 것인지, 혹은 국가재정수입을 겨냥한 것인지가 불투명했기 때문에 개념의 정의가 어렵게 됐다. 여하튼, 단순한 관세율의 수준이나 보호관세품목의 수를 놓고 보더라도, 흔히 주장되는 19세기 중엽보다는 19세기 말이 영국 자유무역의 전성기로 간주될 수 있음을 알 수 있다. 둘째로, 자유무역은 이론과 실제에서 적어도 17세기 말부터 중상주의나 보호무역주의와 공존하면서 진화해왔고, 자유무역과 보호무역의 경계는 늘 가변적이고 유동적이었다. 경제의 여러 부문들 간에는 물론이고, 한 업종 내에서도 이 두 입장과 주장이 혼재하며 뒤엉켜 있는 경우가 많았다. 따라서, 19세기 중엽에 와서 영국경제의 중심에 서게 된 자유무역은 중상주의나 보호무역과의 확연한 결별보다는 이들과의 역사적 공존 속에서 진화하고 발전된 것이었다. 셋째, 자유무역의 도래를 농업과 제조업 간의 대결구도 속에서 파악하려 한 해석의 전통과는 달리, 역사적 증거는 상업과 금융의 역할이 매우 중요했음을 보여주고 있다. 마지막으로, 이렇게 대두한 자유무역은 그것의 전성기라고 간주되는 시기에서조차도 개념의 모호함과 역사적 기원의 복잡함, 그리고 여러 경제 부문들의 이익 상충과 뒤엉킴 때문에 확고한 헤게모니를 확보할 수 없었다.
Abstract
Free trade has been regarded not only as an essential element in the economic system of modern Britain, but as a pivotal concept that defined the Victorian era, the heyday of British empire. In particular, the repeal of the Corn Laws and the Navigation Acts in the later 1840s has usually been considered as a historic watershed ushering in a new era of free trade. Free trade, replacing protectionism and mercantilism, has been thought of as an indispensable and essential force in shaping Britain’s supremacy in modern international economy. On closer examination, however, the certainties and hegemony that free trade has been depicted to have possessed in the conventional interpretation of modern Britain need to be modified. First, the definition of free trade was very often variable and ambiguous. Did free trade simply mean an absence, or a low level, of tariffs? And were the customs duties imposed primarily to protect domestic industries, or intended to control government’s financial resources? For instance, in terms of tariffs measured as a percentage of the value of the imports, the acme of Britain’s free trade was not so much the mid-Victorian era as the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In addition, the number of goods subject to protective customs remained relatively high throughout the middle decades of the nineteenth century. Secondly, free trade, both in theory and practice, coexisted with protectionism and mercantilism at least from the late seventeenth century, and the boundaries between the two were seldom clearly drawn. Free trade and protectionism resided side by side quite comfortably not only among the various sectors of economy, but within a section of an industry, or even within a single theorist. Free trade thus evolved gradually, and sometimes painfully, from its historical coexistence with mercantilist and protectionist theories and practices. Thirdly, contrary to the conventional view analyzing the rise of free trade in terms of the conflict between the manufacturing and agricultural interests, historical evidence shows that the commercial and financial sectors played a much more decisive role in the rise of free trade. Finally, it needs to be emphasized that the potency and hegemony of free trade, even in its heyday, were not so certain as have been assumed, because of its conceptual ambiguities, the complicated nature of its historical origins, and the conflicting and intermingling interests of the various sectors of economy.
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