西漢의 西域邊疆政策

Abstract

Prior to the Han’s advance, people in many countries in the Western Regions lived a settled existence in most cases and they had castles, fields, and livestock. They were different from the Xiongnu Wusun, but all of them were subjected to the Xiongnu. Therefore, the Han’s advance into the Western Regions meant a war against the Xiongnu, which was dominating the northwestern border area of the Han. In the early days after foundation, the Han was not stable politically, economically, or militarily. The Han maintained humiliating friendly relationships with the Xiongno, which was dominating the northwestern border area, while offering gold, cotton and, colored silk every year. China entered a new stage during the reign of Wudi, who ascended  the throne after ‘the rule of Wenjing.’ Wudi firmed up the centralized power system to construct the power base stably internally and established a foundation of a multi-ethnic feudal state centering on Han Chinese, through the expansion of territories mobilizing the armed forces externally. The Han’s exchange with the Western Regions occupies an important position in the history of east and west traffic and the history of the Western Regions. The basic framework of Chinese northwestern border area policies was also established at this time, and this framework still has important implications in relation to border area issues. In order to understand the basic framework of Chinese border area policies, the view of Heaven’s will(天命觀) since the Western Zhou Dynasty period should be examined. The view of Heaven’s will refers to the proxy rule of the world by a son of Heaven, who is a representative of Heaven. Therefore, the world in the Western Zhou Dynasty period meant the range ruled by a son of Heaven based on Heaven’s will. According to this order, only the world acknowledging the order of the son of Heaven was ‘China(華).’ Xiongnu existed in the marginal area of China. The unified Empire Han made Confucianism into its ideology of ruling. As Confucianism was adopted as national studies during the reign of Wudi, Confucianism was reflected on political ideas in the form of idealized China and barbarian thought and Feudalism. Accordingly, the Emperor emerged as the only ruler in the world who receives Heaven’s will and deputizes Heaven’s intentions, and the ruling territory of the Han was expanded into the world including Yixia(夷夏). Accordingly, political organizations were constructed into the inside the boundary(內藩) and outside the boundary(外藩) under the emperor at the summit and the ruling territory was defined. The inside the boundary area is composed of the county regions directly ruled by the emperor, the kingdoms of feudal lords, and the states of feudal lords. This area was where all of the emperor’s virtue, manners, and laws are effective. The outside the boundary area refers to the regions directly ruled by the chiefs of barbarians, who are politically and militarily independent and the emperor’s ruling power did not directly reach these regions. In these regions, only the civilizing influences of the emperor such as manners and virtues were effective. This study explored the Earlier Han’s strategies to manage the Western Regions and the strategies’ effects on later generations. Thereafter, because this study was conducted from the viewpoint of the history of border area ruling, in this paper, first, the processes of opposition, struggles, and wars between the Han and the Xiongno undergone over the Western Regions were described and second, with what political means and strategies the Han subjugated various countries in the Western Regions and how the Han ruled the countries were examined for the 80 years from the beginning of the Han’s advance into the Western Region to the establishment of the Protectorate of the Western Regions and for the period after the establishment of the Protectorate of the Western Regions to the period of Wángmǎng(王莽). The Han’s management of the Western Regions is a process of acquiring and controlling colonies by a powerful nation from the people of a small and weak power. China gave the feudalist idea in the idealized form termed China centric world order to the process to interpret the process as a process of the expansion of the territory and the establishment of a multi-national state and mentions this as a tradition and feature of Chinese diplomacy. Considering whether this idea could be realized even when China is weak, analyzing the border area policies of China in early days is thought to be meaningful work. For the ancient Chinese state of which Cháng'ān was the capital, the stabilization of the northwestern border area was an important issue directly connected to the security of the dynasty. Although the Xiongnu power had been a serious threat to the Han since the early days of the foundation of the country, the Han, which was relatively weak, had no choice but to use friendly relation strategies. The Han, that had been building up its power behind the friendly relation strategies, began to exert its power during the reign of Wudi. Wudi raised the army for the subjugation of the Xiongnu while dispatching Zhāng jiǎn to Dàyuè clan and Wusun clan two times. This opened the road between the Han and the Western Regions. This road, which has an important meaning in the history of east-west traffic and the history of the Western Regions, became the road for the Han’s ruling of most countries in the Western Regions instead of the Xiongnu 80 years later. The modern meaning of the Han’s ruling of the Western Regions is a powerful nation’s colonial ruling of weaker nations. However, the history of China has given the feudalist idea ​ in the form of a Chinese world order. Since then, ‘universal unification(天下一統)’, which means the expansion of the territory and the establishment of a multi-ethnic unified nation, has become an important feature of Chinese foreign relations. The purpose of Zhǎngjiàn's first dispatch of troops to the Western Regions was military and strategic one to suppress the Xiongnu by pincer attacks with Dàyuè clan. However, from the second dispatch of troops, the purpose was changed into spreading the virtue of the son the Heaven to the foreign areas where customs were different. The next step was to open roads for exchanges with many countries in the Western Regions and secure regions necessary in terms of strategies. The targets were Lóulán, Gūshī, Dàwǎn, and Wūsūn. Therefore, the Han secured the southern road to the Western Regions through attacks on Lóulán and Gūshī and informed the status of the son of Heaven of the Han to many countries in the Western Regions and obtained the specialties of the Western Regions such as fine steeds with the first and second attacks on Dàwǎn. Marital policies were also used. Wūsūn, which was dominating the traffic road at that time, was a strategically important country to fight against the Xiongnu forces. The Han tried to conciliate Wūsūn with a marital policy. The marital policy, which began in the reign of Wudi, continued for a long time even after the death of Wudi and eventually Wūsūn betrayed the Xiongnu and became a subordinate state of the Han. Originally, Chēshī(Gūshī) was the hub of traffic to the Western Regions. After the subordination of Lóulán and Wūsūn to the Han, the Xiongnu was desperate to secure Chēshī because it could dominate various countries in the Western Regions only through Chēshī. The offensive and defensive battles between the Han and the Xiongnu were fierce. The surrender of the Rìzhú king xiānxián dǎn who was responsible for Xiongnu’s management of the Western Regions in the third year of Shénjué was a ground-breaking event. The Han not only recovered Chēshī, which had been occupied by the Xiongnu, but also seized the Western Regions at once in place of the Xiongnu. The Han also secured the traffic road going along the southern slope of Tiānshān to the west and the road going from Chēshī feudal lord state to the basin of Yīlí hé on the west. The Han installed the Protectorate of the Western Regions in Wūlěi Castle. The Han’s establishment of the Protectorate of the Western Regions indicates that the Han's attacks on the Western Regions succeeded decisively and the Han became to dominate the Western Regions. Thereafter, the Han has managed the subordinated countries with its own idealized feudalist idea termed Chinese World Order. The Kings and major government officials of the countries under the jurisdiction of the Protectorate of the Western Regions received approving seals given by the Han’s Royal Court. The five countries, Kāngguó, Dàyuèzhī, Ānxí, Jìbīn, and Wūyìshānlí, were not subjected to the Protectorate of the Western Regions because they were too far away. In addition, moving nations, which were small nomadic nations that were moving along the water plant and the sheep, were not known where controlled by the Protectorate of the Western Regions. What is important is that the investiture order implemented in the Western Regions at this time became the prototype of Chinese border area policies. The Earlier Han’s ruling of the Western Regions means the expansion of the territory. At that time, the territory was a vast area ranging from the west of Dūnhuáng to the north of the Pamir Plateau and the Kharakorum mountains and the east and south of Lake Balash. Did the people of the Western Regions willingly accept the rule of Earlier Han? The records about ‘Protectorate General Dànqīn’, ‘Gūjù and Tángdōu’ and ‘Xūzhìlí’ made during the period of Wángmǎng, which is negatively evaluated in the Shǐshū, indicate that the Han’s rule of various countries in the Western Regions was coercive. Although it does not appear in the records before the Wángmǎng period, given the conflicts between the Protectorate of the Western Regions and various countries in the Western Regions, it cannot be regarded that the people in the Western Regions willingly accepted the rule by the Protectorate of the Western Regions. Because ‘China’ neglected ‘barbarians’, the rule could not but be coercive and the resultant repulsion was natural.