대칸의 정의와 사법 환경: 몽골제국 자르구(ǰarγu)에서의 마법, 요행, 혹은 몽롱
The Great Qans’ Justice and its Circumstances: Magic, Luck, or Ambiguity in the ǰarγu of the Mongol Empire
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본고는 몽골제국 자르구에서 옥송의 심리와 판결에 작용하는 마법적·법적·인적 방식을 탐색하고 법적용의 모호성과 사법적·정치적 권능과 모순을 분석했다. 13-14세기에 대칸은 공무와 소송에서 의혹 없는 명백함을 추구했다. 자르구에서 무원을 향한 방식과 노정, 인식은 제국의 구성원 사이에 단일하지 않았다. 심리·심판의 명백함에는 사법적 권능이 요구되었다. 대칸의 자르구는 텡그리로부터 신법의 권위와 정당성을 얻었다. 대칸은 현실 정치에서 텡그리의 신성한 권위를 계승한 동시에, 자르구에서 그것에 구속되었다. 텡그리 혹은 원옥을 향한 경외는 자르구에서 무원의 정의가 추구된 몽골의 문화와 심리이자, 대칸의 은사 권력의 기폭제였다. 당률과 이슬람의 정의처럼 준엄한 법령과 형정(刑政)은 몽골인에게도 공유된 통치 관념이었다. 그것은 칭기스칸의 (대)법령 자삭으로 나타났다. “확고하고 엄격한 법령”과 “훌륭한 형정”에 기반한 칸의 (경제) 정의는 12세기 종족 간 분쟁과 통일 과정에서 잉태한 몽골초원의 ‘새로운’ 법 문화였다. 자삭과 자르구는 (대)칸의 단독·공동 심리·심판, 경제정의를 구성했다. 자삭의 준엄한 실행과 은사(경제적 분배와 법적 사면)는 대칸의 중대한 통치 행위이자 (경제) 정의였다. 그런데 자르구에서 무의와 무원은 달성하기 어려웠다. 자르구는 입법과 법령을 넘어 텡그리·옹곤의 마법과 법적·인적 요소에 간섭받았다. 법 해석과 적용의 모호성은 현실 사회의 복잡한 권익을 ‘존중’하면서 사익을 추구하는 데 종종 유리했기 때문이었다. 자르구에서 몽롱한 언행과 행정은 법률의 해석·적용에 “요행의 문”을 열었다. 그 이면에 대칸의 확고한 권력과 몽골의 (협의적 절차) 정의가 자리했다.
Abstract
This paper examines the magical, legal, and human elements that factored into interrogation and judgment within the ǰarγu, the institution of inquisition within the Mongol empire (1206–1370). Moreover, it analyzes the ambiguity in its practices—in its legal application, judicial and political authority, and backlashes. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the great Qans ideologically pursued public affairs and litigation with a sense of unreserved righteousness. Justice in the ǰarγu was applied quite unevenly, in both its methods and organization, in its perceptions of its ability to apply justice uniformly without blame, among members of the imperial court, and among subjects according to legal standing, ethnicity, religion, ethics, status, and even cultural behavior and languages. Clarity of judgment has many variables. The great Qan’s ǰarγu received its legitimacy through the divine authority of Tengri, the Sky God. The great Qan was believed to inherit Tengri’s holy authority in mundane politics, while at the same time being bound by it in the form of the ǰarγu. The fear of wrongful punishment by Tengri or vengeful spirits set the cultural and psychological background surrounding the ǰarγu and its Mongol mode of justice. Like Chinese legal perceptions evident in the Tang Code, “strict” laws and punishment were governing ideals shared among Mongols. The ǰasaq, or (great) code of Chinggis Qan and his scions, was legislated to reflect such ideas. The great Qan’s justice, underpinned by “firm and strict codes” and “good judicial administration,” shaped a new legal culture in the Mongol grasslands, conceived during the process of bloody conflicts and unification among nomadic peoples during the 12th century. Along with the strict execution of the ǰasaq, amnesty and distribution of shares became an important instrument of governance and justice for the great Qan. Meanwhile, his grace was seen as an unjustified form of luck, leading to constant challenges against the “luck” of amnesty. In the Mongol empire, condemned criminals usually waived their punishment by participating in wars or envoy missions, in thanks to the Qan’s grace. The ǰarγu was implemented in a complex reality where a variety of interests of differing power sought variously to both harmonize and compete. Ambivalence toward the truth of cases and legal interpretations and application—beyond divine magic and sheer luck—advantaged some to pursue personal interests, even as it respected the empire’s complex structure of rights and interests. This was why some interrogations and judgments of the ǰarγu were sometimes settled in an instant, while others languished under delays as neglected cases piled into backlogs of several years. Therefore, the numerous precedents and diversity of laws and customs in the ǰarγu express, in a sense, just one perspective. At the same time, ambiguity in speech, behavior, and legal interpretation opened other “doors to luck.”
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