공자의 공감적 무위·현세주의와 서구 관용사상의 동아시아적 기원(上)
The Confucian Idea of Empathetic Wuwei (無爲) & Secularism and the East Asian Origin of the Western Idea of Tolerance
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인권이념과 긴밀히 결부된 서구의 ‘관용’사상은 - ‘기술’을 제외할 때 - 아마 서양이 전 세계를 향해 자신의 문명적 우월성을 과시할 수 있는 유일한 가치일 것이다. 서구의 이 ‘관용’ 사상은 원래 ‘종교적 관용’ 사상으로부터 발전되어 나왔다. 근세초 개신교 국가들의 정치사상가들에게는 교황의 교권敎權독점을 부정하고 이 교권을 분할·탈취하여 각국의 세속적 치자治者에게 분여하는 것이 모든 종교논의의 초점이었다. 이 사상가들이 주장한 것은 말하자면 ‘치자교권’ 또는 ‘국가교권’이었다. 그러나 국가교권도 로마교황의 교권처럼 개인의 종교자유를 부정하기는 마찬가지였다. 이 ‘치자교권론’은 홉스(Thomas Hobbes)의 《리바이어던》(1651)에서 처음 가장 명시적으로 이론화되었다. 홉스는 “그 자체의 본성에서 불가시적인 것이고, 결과적으로 모든 인간적 관할권으로부터 면해지는 fides(내적 신앙)”와 “이 신앙으로부터 나오는 언동인 confessio(외적 신앙)”를 구분하고, ‘내적 신앙’은 주권자의 통치권 밖에 방치할 수밖에 없지만, 언표와 행동을 통한 신앙의 외적 표현인 ‘외적 신앙’은 주권자의 통치권에 확실히 복속시킬 것을 주장했다. 스피노자(Baruch de Spinoza)는 자유주의적 관점에서 국가교권의 통제대상이 되는 confessio를 신앙의 ‘행동적 표현’으로 축소시켜 - 홉스적 기준에서 confessio에 속하는 - ‘언어적 표현’을 자유화했지만, 홉스적 국가교권론의 골격을 그대로 이어받았다. 로크(John Locke)는 스피노자가 건드리지 않은 국가적 신앙선택권 자체를 문제 삼아 confessio와 fides의 구분 없는 신앙선택권을 개인의 ‘양심’에 귀속시킴으로써 개신교파, 유대교, 이슬람교를 내외신앙 구별 없이 자유화했다. 하지만 그는 가톨릭과 무신론자들에게 관용을 불허하고 이들을 국법으로 억압해야 한다고 주장함으로써 국가교권론의 핵심요소를 답습했다. 이런 까닭에 스피노자와 로크의 관용론은 실은 홉스주의 패러다임에 의해 제약된 ‘불관용론’이었다. 이 패러다임을 넘어서는, 이런 의미에서 진정으로 ‘근대적인’ 종교자유론과 관용론은 비로소 피에르 벨(Pierre Bayle)과 볼테르(Voltaire)에 의해서야 근본적으로 치밀하게 논변될 수 있었다. 이들은 종교의 선택과 신앙의 유무有無를 개인의 고유 권리로 규정해야 한다고 천명하고, 모든 종파들과 무신론자들을 동등하게 허용하는 무차별적·보편적 종교자유와 관용을 주창했다. 이 ‘모든 종파’에는 ‘가톨릭종파’도 포함된다. 그리하여 벨과 볼테르의 ‘무차별적·보편적 종교자유와 관용’ 패러다임에서는 로크가 관용대상에서 배제한 가톨릭종파와 무신론자도 종교의 자유를 얻는다. 따라서 이 ‘무제한적 종교자유와 관용’ 패러다임은 스피노자와 로크의 홉스주의적 패러다임과의 혁명적 단절을 내포하고 있는 것이다. 벨과 볼테르의 이 ‘근대적’ 관용개념은 동아시아와의 만남에 의해 일어난 ‘문화담론의 극적 변동’으로 묘사되는 이런 단절적·혁명적 패러다임전환을 통해 형성된 것이다. 벨의 ‘무차별적 관용’과 볼테르의 ‘보편적 관용’ 사상은 바로 공자의 공감적 무위無爲·현세주의 정치철학과 17-18세기 동아시아의 ‘무제한적’ 종교자유와 관용전통에서 유래한 것이다. 나바레테(D. F. Navarrete)·르콩트(L. Le Comt)·뒤알드(P. Du Halde)는 동아시아의 무제한적 관용문화를 유럽에 전달한 당대의 대표적 저자들이다.
Abstract
The tolerance is the soul of modern democracy. Nowadays, almost the western thinkers as well as the eastern misperceive this idea of tolerance as Western product proper to Europe. But I object to this prevailing misperception. Because this is against the real history of Western modern political thoughts, which accepted the idea of unlimited tolerance from the East Asia. Unlimited, in the sense that even the intolerant religions and the atheists are tolerated. This idea of unlimited tolerance is what Confucius as Wuwei (無爲) philosopher first invented. Some argue that the modern idea of tolerance has been originated and expanded from Hobbes’s concept of free fides . Hobbes divides belief into confessio (outer faith) and fides (inner faith), and makes the former state’s business, while the latter the free discretion of private person. But outer faith and inner faith is originally indivisible, and the contradiction between them is unable to bear. Therefore the ecclesiastical authority of the state relating to the outer faith suppresses also the inner faith. Hobbesian conception of state’s ecclesiastical authority is, in effect, a paradigm by which the state oppresses all other religions, whether outside or inside, except a religion allowed by the state. It is therefore principally impossible, that the modern idea of unlimited tolerance, which is appliable even to the intolerant sects and atheists, can be deducted from the Hobbesian state paradigm of ecclesiastical authority. For this reason, Spinoza and Locke, who found expressly & implicitly on the Hobbesian paradigm, failed to develop the modern idea of tolerance. For the first time, Pierre Bayle and Voltaire imported the Confucian idea of the unlimited tolerance and the real practices of unlimited religious freedom form the Far East. Now they destroyed the Hobbesian paradigm and transformed & coined that Confusian idea and the East Asian practice of the unlimited tolerance into the modern idea of ‘indifferent tolerance’ and ‘universal tolerance’for each. In conclusion, without Confucius and Est Asia, the western modern idea of tolerance & the freedom of religion and thought would have been impossible. The disenchantment of the christianly enchanted, rather haunted Europe, and the rise & developerment of western democracy which founds on the idea of unlimited tolerance as its soul also would have been so.
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