Sub-regional Cooperation and Unbalanced Municipal Development in the Northern East Sea Rim: A Comparative Study of Triangle Cities on Tumen River Delta*
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This paper aims to consider the multi-layered aspects of sub-regional cooperation on the Tumen River delta among Hunchun in China, Vladivostok in Russia, and Rasun in North Korea: how cooperation could be formulated, how infrastructures and institutions can be constructed, how sub-regional cooperation has been shaped in terms of human capital and educational, medical facilities & services, and how this institutional arrangement has influenced trade, human resource exchange, maritime environment and so forth. The internal dynamics of sub-regional cooperation have not been significantly explored in the border cities of Hunchun, Vladivostok, and Rasun. For this sub-regional cooperation, the external factors cannot be neglected by and large. In addition to the prerequisite concerns, the constraints such as the reactions to US sanctions on North Korea and Russia and the outbreak of COVID-19 has had an unparalleled impact on the triangle of sub-regional cooperation on the Tumen River delta. Recently the war between Russia and Ukraine has yielded security expenses and economic opportunities for China and North Korea as Russia and China and/or Russia and North Korea get close together. Even so, Rasun in North Korea still seems to remain unstable and unbalanced city, working as a structural hole according to network theoretical perspective. Thus, complex and multi-layered sub-regionalism must be reconsidered to understand the triangle cities on the Tumen River Delta area, together with cautiously considering international influence on them. This case would be suggested to apply for multi-layered sub-regional municipal theory to promote urban and regional development with the infrastructural support of central and local governments to create new opportunities of the North Arctic route, and constraints such as lack of amenities to attract domestic and foreign direct investment.
Abstract
This paper aims to consider the multi-layered aspects of sub-regional cooperation on the Tumen River delta among Hunchun in China, Vladivostok in Russia, and Rasun in North Korea: how cooperation could be formulated, how infrastructures and institutions can be constructed, how sub-regional cooperation has been shaped in terms of human capital and educational, medical facilities & services, and how this institutional arrangement has influenced trade, human resource exchange, maritime environment and so forth. The internal dynamics of sub-regional cooperation have not been significantly explored in the border cities of Hunchun, Vladivostok, and Rasun. For this sub-regional cooperation, the external factors cannot be neglected by and large. In addition to the prerequisite concerns, the constraints such as the reactions to US sanctions on North Korea and Russia and the outbreak of COVID-19 has had an unparalleled impact on the triangle of sub-regional cooperation on the Tumen River delta. Recently the war between Russia and Ukraine has yielded security expenses and economic opportunities for China and North Korea as Russia and China and/or Russia and North Korea get close together. Even so, Rasun in North Korea still seems to remain unstable and unbalanced city, working as a structural hole according to network theoretical perspective. Thus, complex and multi-layered sub-regionalism must be reconsidered to understand the triangle cities on the Tumen River Delta area, together with cautiously considering international influence on them. This case would be suggested to apply for multi-layered sub-regional municipal theory to promote urban and regional development with the infrastructural support of central and local governments to create new opportunities of the North Arctic route, and constraints such as lack of amenities to attract domestic and foreign direct investment.