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젼바오섬 사건은 중국의 의도적 선제공격이었는가? : 위기관리 전략 구사의 한계에 대한 조직이론적 해석

Organizational Limits in Strategic Implementation: Revisiting the Cause of the Chinese Gunfire on Soviet Borderguards in Zhenbao Island

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이 글은 국가의 위기관리전략을 군사조직이 수행하는 과정을 조직이론적으로 해석함으로써 1969년 중소국경분쟁의 발생원인을 재해석하는 것을 목표로 한다. 기존 연구는 단일 행위자(Unitary Actor) 모형에 입각하여 중소국경분쟁을 해석함으로써, 1969년 3월 2일 중국군의 선제 조준사격을 중국 중앙정부의 의도적인 공격이라고 분석한다. 그러나 이러한 해석은 당시 접경지역의 민감한 전술적 상황을 간과하고 있을 뿐만 아니라 증거로 제시되는 사료와도 부합하지 않는다. 이러한 한계를 극복하기 위해 본 연구는 ‘일상사고이론’(Normal Accident Theory)이 제시하는 두 가지 변수(복잡성 / 긴밀성) 사이에서 딜레마에 놓인 조직이 어떤 선택을 하게 되는지 살펴본다. 사건이 복잡할수록 일선 하위조직의 즉각적인 대응이 중요해지게 되므로, 상부 조직은 하부 조직이 스스로의 목표를 추구하는 탈중심화(decentralization)를 허용한다. 반면, 파급력이 상부조직까지 빠르게 확대되는 긴밀성이 높은 사건에 대해서 상부 조직은 하부 조직의 우발적 행동을 통제하기 위해 강한 중앙적 통제(centralization)를 유지한다. 조직이 처리해야 하는 모든 문제들은 이 두 가지 상충된 속성을 지니고 있기 때문에 상부조직-하부조직의 관계 설정을 선택하는 방법은 딜레마에 놓이게 된다. 이러한 문제는 국가 간의 안보갈등 상황 하에서 국가조직과 군사조직의 관계에서 극명하게 드러난다. 핵보유국간의 확전이 공멸로 이어질 수 있는 긴밀한 성격의 위기를 관리해야 하는 국가조직은 상대방에게 정치외교적 신호를 보내기 위한 수단으로 군사력을 활용한다. 그러나 하부의 군사조직은 국가조직이 하달한 목표의 수행뿐만 아니라 스스로의 생존을 추구해야 하는 복잡성에 노출되어 있다. 이런 상황 속에서 국가조직이 하부 군사조직의 현실적인 전술상황에 대해 오판하는 경우, 하부의 군사조직은 중앙적 통제의 공백 속에서 스스로의 생존을 추구하기 위한 군사적인 조치를 취하게 된다. 이러한 군사적 조치가 상대방에게 잘못된 신호를 전달하게 되면, 국가조직이 채택한 위기관리 전략은 실패하게 된다. 1969년 중소국경분쟁의 시발점이었던 3월 2일의 선제사격은 이러한 과정을 통해 설명될 수 있다. 현상변경국이었던 중국 중앙정부는 젼바오섬 일대에 대한 소련의 ‘제한된 확전’ 전략에 대응하여 기존의 조치를 지속함으로써 상대방의 전술적 이점을 제한하고 의지를 시험하는 ‘통제된 압력’ 전략을 수행하고자 했고, 이를 위해 군사조직을 통해 기존에 행해오던 순찰작전을 유지하려 했다. 그러나 중국 중앙정부의 인식과는 달리 현지의 전술적 환경은 중국군이 안전한 순찰작전을 지속하기에 불리했다. 결국, 현지의 군사조직은 중국군의 작전통제방침의 허점을 이용하여 소련군에게 선제 조준사격을 감행했는데, 이는 명백히 중국이 의도한 전략과는 다른 것이었다. 이 사례연구를 통해 본 연구는 국가의 위기관리전략의 실시 과정에서 발생할 수 있는 조직 관계의 문제에 대한 사례연구를 위한 분석틀의 모색을 시도했다는 점에서 이론적 함의가 있다.

Abstract

On March 2, 1969, the gunfire perpetrated by the Chinese Border Guards killed thirty one Soviet Border Guards. This incident triggered a strategic crisis between the People’s Republic of China and the Soviet Union. Most analytic work on this topic explaining this incident by way of the ‘unitary actor model’ considered it as an intentional attack by the central government of the PRC (People's Republic of China). However, this view ignores the complexity inherent in a tactical situation in this border area. Moreover, the primary sources quoted by the literature fails to corroborate that the Chinese central government or the military command of the PRC Army literally ordered or commanded the gunfire on March 2nd. This paper tries to reassess the cause of 1969 Sino-Soviet Border Conflict from the perspective of organization theory. It focuses on how the military organization on the field can implement the crisis management strategy planned by the central government in a mistaken manner. According to the Normal Accident Theory, when the unit (the lower level of the entire organization) deals with a complex and highly sensitive incident, it faces the dilemma of 'decentralization' as it has to cope with 'the interactive complexity' and 'the tightness of coupling' at the same time. As the incident is interactively complex, the system (the upper level of the entire organization) permits the decentralization of the unit (the lower level of the entire organization) in order to ensure a flexible response to a complex situation. On the other hand, if the incident is tightly coupled to the entire organization, the system tries to centralize the unit in order to minimize the risk of the unit's engaging in an unexpected action. If the incident is complex and tightly coupled, however, the system faces problem of determining the right level of decentralization between the system and the unit. The relations between the state and the military organization in a security crisis is emblematic of such an organizational dilemma in 'Normal Accident Theory'. As escalation between nuclear states results in mutual destruction, each state tries to tightly control its military organization in order to use it for the purpose of delivering diplomatic signals to the opposing states. This means that the state needs to be sure that the military fulfill the mission given without deviation, for the fear of sending an unintended wrong diplomatic signal. While this may be so from the state’s level perspective, the military units in the field still face the organizational duty of survival in a complex tactical situation. This, in turn, demands decentralization in military actions and maximization of military readiness at the field. So if the state’s control of the military is not strong enough, the military, given the challenges it faces, will enhance combat readiness, which likely leads to unintended diplomatic signals to its opposing states. The preemptive gunfire by PRC border guards on 2nd of March was the result of the organizational dilemma of the PRC government-military organization relations rather than a well-coordinated action by the Chinese government. The PRC central government tried to implement the 'controlled pressure' strategy which tries to maintain the patrolling operations carried out for years, in facing the USSR's 'limited escalation' strategy which tries to increase the intensity and the frequency of the border patrol operations. However, contrary to the perception of the PRC central government and the local military district, the tactical situation in the border area was unfavorable to PRC border guards. Moreover, the PRC rules of engagement exercised tight control only over the size of double-squads, and gave platoon –level operations significant discretion by commanding by negation. This means that platoons were allowed to act first and report later. As a result, the border patrol squad in the Zhenbao Island tried to enhance the combat readiness by exploiting the loophole of the PRC army's rules of engagement. The border patrol platoon instantly returned fire when they heard the gunfiring sound from the Soviet side, although the PRC government and the military district issued strict limits on gunfire. This research raises questions about the widely-accepted cause of the Sino-Soviet Border Conflict. Moreover, it tries to design a theoretical framework for organizational problems in a state’s implementing crisis management strategies.

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