인도 초기 불상의 형상과 그 의미 시고(試考)
A Preliminary Thought on the Significance of Iconographic Configurations of Buddha Images from Early India
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불상의 창안 이후 굽타시대(4-5세기)에 이르기까지 인도 초기 불상 조상사에서 흥미로운 현상은 <초전법륜>이나 <성도> 등 불전(佛傳)의 중요한 사건과 명시적으로 관련된 독립 불상이 전혀 존재하지 않는다는 사실이다. 그렇다면 그 시기에 불상은 어떤 의미를 나타내도록 도상적으로 구성된 것인가? 혹은 초기 불상의 도상적 구성은 어떤 의미를 지니는 것인가? 이 논문은 이러한 문제를 탐색한다.
Abstract
After the creation of the Buddha image around the beginning of the Common Era, the most critical juncture in the history of Buddhist icons, at least within India, is probably the emergence of Buddha images in the middle Gangetic valley around the fifth to sixth century CE displaying the preaching gesture (dharmacakra-mudrā) and the earth-touching gesture (bhūmisparśa-mudrā). These two image types present the Buddha clearly engaged in two important events from his life, theFirst Sermon and the Enlightenment. This is in stark contrast to earlier forms of the Buddha in iconic images, which feature little in the way of narrative. From this point on, these two types, especially the bhūmisparśa, were the most common iconic images of the Buddha throughout later Buddhist art from India; they also simultaneously impacted other parts of the Buddhist world, such as Burma and later Thailand. In this paper, I return to the period before this important change took place in Indian Buddhism—that is, the centuries after the creation of the Buddha image (around the beginning of the Common Era)—exploring the ways in which the Buddha was presented in iconic images and what significance we may be able to infer from their iconographic configurations. I touch on all three major centers of Buddhist art in this period, Gandhāra, Mathurā, and Āndhra, the last comprising Amarāvatī and Nāgārjunakoṇḍa, but focus inevitably on Gandhāra, where a greater variety was shown in a significantly larger body of productions. An analysis in this papers clearly shows that diverse—but a fairly limited number of—Buddha image types from early India had little to do with narrative moments of the Buddha’s life or specific Buddhas noted with special importance in contemporaneous Buddhist texts or cults. Perhaps the most noteworthy among the findings in this analysis is an interesting contrast between the dhyāna-mudrā type and the dharmacakra-mudrā type, especially in Gandhāra. These two types were not simply two concurrent types; instead, the two might have been related, or even used in contradistinction. The contrast between the two types is tantalizing, and Gandhāran Buddhists possibly perceived their diverging significances, or even sometimes constructed it, through their mutual relationship, by the time the dharmacakra-mudrā Buddha was established as another popular type. In dhyāna-mudrā, the Buddha is apparently deeply absorbed in meditation and is cut off from the outside world. In such depictions, the Buddha is static, withdrawn in the bliss of impenetrable enlightenment or solitary mental concentration (samādhi). Most images of the dharmacakra-mudrā Buddha are shown in an abstract form, but the Buddha sometimes appears in the extraordinary narrative setting of the Indraśailaguhā framed in a magnificent stele. On the other hand, in dharmacakra-mudrā, the Buddha is active—whether the action is preaching, reception, or approval, if it can be glimpsed in examples, though limited in numbers, of its use in narrative depictions. He is no longer in a state of self-absorption, but conspicuously engages with the imaginary audience or viewers. In its advanced form, in complex steles, for instance, such as one from Mohammed-Nari, the dharmacakra-mudrā is coupled with a grandiose lotus seat, with which the Buddha overlaps. In this act of the Buddha, its original significance—whatever it was—was further exalted, or perhaps even another layer of meaning was added. The rolling water from which the lotus emerges suggests fluidity, as if violently moving toward creation. It reminds one of an ocean, highlighted in a number of Buddhist scriptures, rather than a tranquil pond of Sukhāvatī, as the Amitābha theorist would have us believe. The Buddha seems to emerge from the rolling water along with or like the lotus. Or, viewed in contrast with dhyāna-mudrā Buddhas—particularly one that appears in a magnificent depiction of the Indraśailaguha—this Buddha looks as if he has been roused out of meditative quiescence.
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