Visualizing Cardinals in Illuminated Books during the Renaissance
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Portraits and coats of arms of cardinals are often included in illuminated manuscripts created in Renaissance Europe. Cardinals commissioned new liturgical books and acquired older books to be altered for their needs. Some of them commissioned illuminated books, panel paintings, altarpieces, and other types of decorative arts from leading artists of their own time. After the late fourteenth century, the emphasis on individual ownership resulted in the increased appearance of portraits in service books. In the late fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries, individual ownership of a missal was as prevalent as the ownership of books of hours and psalters. Cardinals crossed the ambiguous boundaries between religious and secular powers. Granted unparalleled access to Church and private property, they spent considerable time, money, and effort on forming some of the best collections of art and antiquities. Some commissioned artworks in churches that advertised their monastic or national connections, while others took Rome and the papacy abroad to enrich their own cities and countries. But theirs was a precarious dignity: while cardinals could thrive during one papacy, they could suddenly fall from power during the next. New research represented by the sixteen case studies in The Possessions of a Cardinal reveals how cardinals used their vulnerable position and spent their substantial wealth on personal and religious interests. These studies underscore the tensions inherent in their position between the spiritual and the worldly. With this context in mind, I analyze portraits of cardinals and compare them with group representation in monastic missals and choir books and with individual portraits of prominent historical figures. Treated here are French, Burgundian, and Italian manuscripts with case studies on Cardinal Bertrand de Deux (unknown–1355), Cardinal Giacomo Gaetani Stefaneschi (ca. 1270– 1343), Cardinal Ferry de Cluny (ca. 1430–1483), and Giulio di Giuliano de’ Medici (Pope Clement VII 1478–1534). Based on previous research by others and on my studies of monastic groups represented in illuminated manuscripts, I argue that increasing emphasis was placed on individual ownership in illuminated manuscripts for cardinals. I have argued elsewhere that portraits of monastic members in illuminated liturgical manuscripts strengthened their group identity rather than individuality based on family lineage. In illuminated books acquired by cardinals or created for them, however, much emphasis was given to the dynastic succession of the family as manifest in their prominent family coats of arms or portraits found throughout the manuscripts.
Abstract
Portraits and coats of arms of cardinals are often included in illuminated manuscripts created in Renaissance Europe. Cardinals commissioned new liturgical books and acquired older books to be altered for their needs. Some of them commissioned illuminated books, panel paintings, altarpieces, and other types of decorative arts from leading artists of their own time. After the late fourteenth century, the emphasis on individual ownership resulted in the increased appearance of portraits in service books. In the late fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries, individual ownership of a missal was as prevalent as the ownership of books of hours and psalters. Cardinals crossed the ambiguous boundaries between religious and secular powers. Granted unparalleled access to Church and private property, they spent considerable time, money, and effort on forming some of the best collections of art and antiquities. Some commissioned artworks in churches that advertised their monastic or national connections, while others took Rome and the papacy abroad to enrich their own cities and countries. But theirs was a precarious dignity: while cardinals could thrive during one papacy, they could suddenly fall from power during the next. New research represented by the sixteen case studies in The Possessions of a Cardinal reveals how cardinals used their vulnerable position and spent their substantial wealth on personal and religious interests. These studies underscore the tensions inherent in their position between the spiritual and the worldly. With this context in mind, I analyze portraits of cardinals and compare them with group representation in monastic missals and choir books and with individual portraits of prominent historical figures. Treated here are French, Burgundian, and Italian manuscripts with case studies on Cardinal Bertrand de Deux (unknown–1355), Cardinal Giacomo Gaetani Stefaneschi (ca. 1270– 1343), Cardinal Ferry de Cluny (ca. 1430–1483), and Giulio di Giuliano de’ Medici (Pope Clement VII 1478–1534). Based on previous research by others and on my studies of monastic groups represented in illuminated manuscripts, I argue that increasing emphasis was placed on individual ownership in illuminated manuscripts for cardinals. I have argued elsewhere that portraits of monastic members in illuminated liturgical manuscripts strengthened their group identity rather than individuality based on family lineage. In illuminated books acquired by cardinals or created for them, however, much emphasis was given to the dynastic succession of the family as manifest in their prominent family coats of arms or portraits found throughout the manuscripts.
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