본문 바로가기
KERD
논문KCI 등재

WHAT ACCOUNTS FOR GENDER INCOME INEQUALITY? EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM VIETNAMESE SMALL AND MEDIUM MANUFACTURING ENTERPRISES

VAN HA|TINH DOAN|MARK HOLMES
경제연구소 (Hanyang Economic Research Institute)|2022.03|Journal of Economic Development|제47권 제1호|pp. 65-84|DOI 10.35866/caujed.2022.47.1.003

0

조회

0

다운로드

0

인용

0

참고문헌

키워드

Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)DecompositionGender Income Gap
주제분류경제학

초록

This paper examines the gender income inequality between male and female workers in small and medium-sized manufacturing enterprises in Vietnam. Using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition approach to a dataset obtained from a unique employee survey during the 2011-2015 period, we find that the gender income gap (7.4%) in micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) is smaller than the common gendered wage gap (10%) in the general workforce in Vietnam. Our results reveal that education and experience play less important roles in the workers’ earning in SMEs where education and high skills may not highly demanded. The gender wage gap is mostly unexplained by observed factors or endowments in our models. The largest part of the gendered wage gap is still mystified which may include gender discrimination that is unobservable. Overall, the gender income inequality in the sector in Vietnam is not as worse as seen in higher skilled sectors as well as in many other countries. This helps shed light on the mechanism of gender income inequality and helps policy makers to tackle the causes of income gap or inequality between sexes as well as amongst all workers.

Abstract

This paper examines the gender income inequality between male and female workers in small and medium-sized manufacturing enterprises in Vietnam. Using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition approach to a dataset obtained from a unique employee survey during the 2011-2015 period, we find that the gender income gap (7.4%) in micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) is smaller than the common gendered wage gap (10%) in the general workforce in Vietnam. Our results reveal that education and experience play less important roles in the workers’ earning in SMEs where education and high skills may not highly demanded. The gender wage gap is mostly unexplained by observed factors or endowments in our models. The largest part of the gendered wage gap is still mystified which may include gender discrimination that is unobservable. Overall, the gender income inequality in the sector in Vietnam is not as worse as seen in higher skilled sectors as well as in many other countries. This helps shed light on the mechanism of gender income inequality and helps policy makers to tackle the causes of income gap or inequality between sexes as well as amongst all workers.

참고문헌 (59)

  1. Altonji, J. G., "Handbook of Labour Economics, Volume 3C" (1999), Elsevier, North-Holland
  2. Arulampalam, W., "Is There a Glass Ceiling over Europe? Exploring the Gender Pay Gap Across the Wage Distribution", ILR Review, 60(2), pp.163~186 (2007)
  3. Becker, G. S., "The Economics of Discrimination" (2010), University of Chicago Press
  4. Bhaumik, S., "Does Move to Market Have an Impact on Earnings Gap Across Gender? Some Evidence from India", Applied Economics Letters, 15(8), pp.601~605 (2008)
  5. Blau, F. D., "The Gender Wage Gap : Extent, Trends, and Explanations", Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), pp.789~865 (2017)
  6. Blinder, A. S., "Wage Discrimination: Reduced Form and Structural Estimates", Journal of Human Resources, pp.436~455 (1973)
  7. Carrington, W. J., "Gender Segregation in Small Firms", Journal of Human Resources, pp.503~533 (1995)
  8. Cha, Y., "Overwork and the Slow Convergence in the Gender Gap in Wages", American Sociological Review, 79(3), pp.457~484 (2014)
  9. Chant, S., "Fixing Women or Fixing the World? ‘Smart Economics’, Efficiency Approaches and Gender Equality in Development", Gender and Development, 20(3), pp.517~529 (2012)
  10. Chen, Z., "Globalization and Gender Wage Inequality in China", World Development, 44, pp.255~266 (2013)
  11. Chowdhury, I., "Gender Gap in Earnings in Vietnam: Why Do Vietnamese Women Work in Lower Paid Occupations?", Journal of Southeast Asian Economies, 36(3), pp.400~423 (2019)
  12. Cooklin, A. R., "Change and Stability in Work–Family Conflict and Mothers’ and Fathers’ Mental Health: Longitudinal Evidence from an Australian Cohort", Social Science and Medicine, 155, pp.24~34 (2016)
  13. Craig, L., "Parenthood, Gender and Work􀀀Family Time in the United States, Australia, Italy, France, and Denmark", Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(5), pp.1344~1361 (2010)
  14. Deschacht, N., "Part-Time Work and Women’s Careers : a Decomposition of the Gender Promotion Gap", Journal of Labor Research, 38(2), pp.169~186 (2017)
  15. Deshpande, A., "Bad Karma or Discrimination? Male-female Wage Gaps among Salaried Workers in India", World Development, 102, pp.331~344 (2018)
  16. Doan, T., "Labour Market Returns to Higher Education in Vietnam", Economics E-journal, 5(2011-12), pp.1~21 (2011)
  17. Doan, T., "Lost in Transition? Declining Returns to Education in Vietnam", European Journal of Development Research, 30(2), pp.195~216 (2018)
  18. Fitzenberger, B., "The 2011 Break in the Part-Time Indicator and the Evolution of Wage Inequality in Germany", Journal for Labour Market Research, 54(1), pp.1~14 (2020)
  19. "Labour and Employment Report" (2014)[URL]
  20. Gottschalk, S., "Gender Differences in Business Success of German Start-up Firms", International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 18(1), pp.15~46 (2013)
  21. Haughton, J., "Son Preference in Vietnam", Studies in Family Planning, 26(6), pp.325~337 (1995)
  22. Hernandez, L., "Female Entrepreneurship in China: Opportunity-or Necessity-Based?", International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 15(4), pp.411~434 (2012)
  23. Huber, M., "On the Sensitivity of Wage Gap Decompositions", Journal of Labor Research, 41(1), pp.1~33 (2020)
  24. Hughes, J., "Effects of Marriage, Education and Occupation on the Female", Male Wage Gap in China, 2002, pp.7(1), 137~156
  25. "Gender Equality in Recruitment and Promotion Practices in Vietnam" (2015)[URL]
  26. "Labour and Social Trends in Vietnam 2012-2017" (2018)[URL]
  27. Jurajda, S., "Gender Age Gap and Segregation in Enterprises and the Public Sector in Late Transition Countries", Journal of Comparative Economics, 31(2), pp.199~222 (2003)
  28. Kabeer, N., "Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment: A Critical Analysis of the Third Millennium Development Goal", Gender and Development, 13(1), pp.13~24 (2005)
  29. Kennedy, T., "Reducing Gender Wage Inequality Increases Economic Prosperity for All: Insights from Australia", Economic Analysis and Policy, 55, pp.14~24 (2017)
  30. Kidd, M.P., "The Gender Wage Gap: A Comparison of Australia and Canada", ILR Review, 49(4), pp.729~746 (1996)
  31. Does Gender Inequality Reduce Growth and Development? Evidence from Cross-Country Regressions, "Klasen, S.", ~, pp.Analyse Diskreter Strukturen Discussion Paper No 212 (2000)
  32. Le, N., "Small Business Development and Economic Transformation in Vietnam", Journal of Asian Business, 9(4), pp.1~23 (1993)
  33. Sibling Size and Investment in Chidlren’s Education: An Asian Instrument, "Lee, J.", Institute for the Study of Labor, ~, pp.Discussion Paper No. 1323 (2004)
  34. Liu, Y., "Gender Wage Gap in Vietnam: 1993 to 1998", Journal of Comparative Economics, 32(3), pp.586~596 (2004)
  35. Liu, Y., "Sectoral Gender Wage Gap in Vietnam", Oxford Development Studies, 32(2), pp.225~239 (2004)
  36. Maurer-Fazio, M., "Differential Rewards to, and Contributions of, Education in Urban China’s Segmented Labor Markets", Pacific Economic Review, 9(3), pp.173~189 (2004)
  37. Minnotte, K. L., "Occupation and Industry Sex Segregation, Gender, and Workplace Support: The Use of Flexible Scheduling Policies", Journal of Family Issues, 31(5), pp.656~680 (2010)
  38. Ministry of Planning and Investment, "The White book - Enterprises in Vietnam" (2019), Statistical Publisher
  39. Monti, H., "How Long Do Early Career Decisions Follow Women? The Impact of Employer History on the Gender Wage Gap", Journal of Labor Research, 41, pp.189~232 (2020)
  40. Mysicova, M., "Gender Wage Gap in the Czech Republic and Central European Countries", Prague Economic Papers, 21(3), pp.328~346 (2012)
  41. Nguyen, B. T., "A Quantile Regression Decomposition of Urban–Rural Inequality in Vietnam", Journal of Development Economics, 83(2), pp.466~490 (2007)
  42. Nguyen, T.V., "A Study of the Formality of Human Resource Management Practices in Small and Medium-Size Enterprises in Vietnam", International Small Business Journal, 22(6), pp.595~618 (2004)
  43. Nordman, C.J., "Micro, Small, And Medium Enterprises in Vietnam", pp.208~226 (2020), Oxford University Press
  44. O’Neill, O.A., "Careers as Tournaments: The Impact of Sex and Gendered Organizational Culture Preferences on MBAs’ Income Attainment", Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31(6), pp.856~876 (2010)
  45. Oaxaca, R., "Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Markets", International Economic Review, pp.693~709 (1973)
  46. Oaxaca, R. L., "On Discrimination and the Decomposition of Wage Differentials", Journal of Econometrics, 61(1), pp.5~21 (1994)
  47. Peng, M. W., "The Growth of the Firm in Planned Economies in Transition : Institutions, Organizations, and Strategic Choice", Academy of Management Review, 21(2), pp.492~528 (1996)
  48. Pham, T. -H., "The Gender Pay Gap in Vietnam, 1993-2002: A Quantile Regression Approach", Journal of Asian Economics, 18(5), pp.775~808 (2007)
  49. Rand, J., "Micro, Small and Meduim Enterprises in Vietnam" (2020), Oxford University Press
  50. Reimer, D., "Tracing the Gender Wage Gap: Income Differences between Male and Female University Graduates in Germany", Journal for Labour Market Research, 39(2), pp.235~253 (2006)
  51. Scicchitano, S., "The Male - Female Pay Gap Across the Managerial Workforce in the United Kingdom: A Semi-Parametric Decomposition Approach", Applied Economics Letters, 19(13), pp.1293~1297 (2012)
  52. Solon, G., "Generational Income Mobility in North America and Europe" (2004), Cambridge University Press
  53. Shahrabani, S., "Sources of Gender Wage Gap in Different Economic Sectors: The Israeli Case", Applied Economics Letters, 14(14), pp.1019~1022 (2007)
  54. Valletta, R., "What’s Behind the Increase in Part-Time Work?", FRBSF Economic Letter, 24, pp.1~5 (2013)
  55. Vu, T. M., "Decomposing Vietnamese Gender Equality in Terms Of Wage Distribution", Pacific Economic Review, 23(5), pp.705~731 (2018)
  56. Walter, Y.O., "Handbook of Labor Economics, Volume 3B" (1999), Elsevier
  57. "Female Labour Force Participation Rate" (2019)[URL]
  58. Wilkins, R., "Two Decades of Change: The Australian Labour Market, 1993-2013", Australian Economic Review, 47(4), pp.417~431 (2014)
  59. Wooldridge, J. M., "Introductory Econometrics-A Modern Approach" (2012), Cegage Learning

관련 논문AI추천

Wage Structure Determinants and Gender Pay Gap among Wage Earners: From Mean to Overall Log Wage Distributional Decomposition김기승, 선홍예경제연구소 · Seoul Journal of Economics2017 · 제30권 제1호The Rural-Urban Inequality in Fringe Benefits for Workers in SMEs: Evidence from VietnamHuong Quynh Nguyen, Nguyen Nhu Gia Bao, Tao Nguyen Tu Anh, Trinh Hai Huynh사람과세계경영학회 · Global Business and Finance Review2025 · 제30권 제9호Productivity Effect of Efficiency Wages at Small and Medium-Sized Manufacturing Enterprises: the Case of VietnamTung Nhu Nguyen사람과세계경영학회 · Global Business and Finance Review2023 · 제28권 제7호Sharing Economic Rents with Workers? Evidence from Matched Employer-Employee Data in VietnamNOBUAKI YAMASHITA한국개발연구원 · KDI Journal of Economic Policy2025 · 제47권 제3호지배구조의 젠더 다양성이 기업혁신 활동에 미치는 영향: 베트남 제조기업을 중심으로 분석강영희여성학연구소 · 젠더와 문화2021 · 제14권 제2호성별 소득격차의 분해: 자영업과 임금근로의 비교정진화, 최강식한국경제학회 · 경제학연구2007 · 제55권 제4호

이 간행물의 다른 논문 (6건)

ARFIMA REFERENCE FORECASTS FOR WORLDWIDE CO2 EMISSIONS AND THE NATIONAL DIMENSION OF THE POLICY EFFORTS TO MEET IPCC TARGETSALFREDO M. PEREIRA, JOSÉ M. BELBUTEpp. 1-27URAL RESOURCE DEPENDENCE AND TAX EFFORT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICATERVER THEOPHILUS KUMEKA, Oluwatosin Adeniyi, OLADIMEJI ALAGpp. 29-64THE IMPACTS OF TRADE OPENNESS ON INDUSTRIAL PERFORMANCE AT REGIONAL AND PROVINCIAL LEVELS IN VIETNAMHUONG LE, LY BUIpp. 85-107ON THE INTERACTION BETWEEN EXPORT PROMOTION AND AGRICULTURAL GROWTH IN POVERTY REDUCTION IN NIGERIA: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE PERIOD 1980-2016AKINLO ANTHONY ENISAN, OKUNLOLA CHARLES OLALEKANpp. 109-135DEVALUATION, EXPORT QUALITY AND EMPLOYMENT IN A SMALL DEPENDENT ECONOMYRajat Acharyya, SHRIMOYEE GANGULYpp. 137-165
원문 보기