The Formation of East Asian Bureaucratic Statehood and its Characteristics: From Han to Song: Bureaucratic Statehood in China, Bureaucratic Meritocracy and the Marxist Understanding of Pre-Capitalist Socio-Economic Formations
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The current article deals with the history of East Asian states – with a focus on China – from the late Han age (ca the second century) to the end of Song (the thirteenth century). It examines mediaeval East Asian history focusing on the process through which bureaucratic statehood gradually developed. The aim of this article is to use the factual material on the development of bureaucratic statehood in East Asia in order to reconsider the Marxist understanding of pre-capitalist formations as a whole. As is well-known, this understanding, in the USSR and beyond , since the early 1930s was defined by a dogmatic ‘five formations’ scheme in which pre-capitalist societies were to be placed into the Procrustean bed of either ‘slave-owning’ or ‘feudalism.’ This scheme was both extremely Eurocentric and hardly conformed to Marx’ own understanding of pre-capitalist societies: Marx used such terms as ‘slave-owning’ or ‘feudalism’ while referring to specifically European rather than global history. This scheme hardly fits into the empirically reconstructed picture of East Asia’s ancient or mediaeval history where, excluding certain epochs and certain relatively peripheral regions (Japan), neither slave-owning nor (quasi-)feudal structures ever played any significant part. Dissident or unorthodox Marxists, in the USSR and elsewhere, often attempted to complement this Eurocentric ‘five formations’ scheme by posing a special ‘Asian mode of production’ for Asian (or generally non-European) societies. However, this kind of conceptualization would concomitantly strengthen the Eurocentric bias by defining the European experience of slave-owning city-states or feudal hierarchies as ‘universal’ as opposed to the regional particularity of the ‘Asian mode of production.’ The present author, in his take on East Asia’s mediaeval history, proposes to jettison the concept of ‘feudalism’ altogether and focus instead on how East Asian societies – and specifically China – developed their productive bases with increasingly bureaucratized statehood as the scaffoldings of their superstructural framework. In the societies reaching a relatively high level of productive forces advancement – such as Song China – the process of state bureaucratization and development of meritocratic routines was accompanied by the first instance of de-aristocratization of a society in mediaeval world history. Having compared the meritocratic appointment, promotion and demotion routines in second to twelfth-century China with the bureaucratic procedures in other contemporary Eurasian states, this article concludes by agreeing with Samir Amin’s (1931-2018) definition of pre-modern China as a ‘perfected’ version of the tributary mode of production. At the same time, it has to be remembered that in the East Asian societies with a lesser degree of productive force development (Koryŏ etc.), de-aristocratization of the kind observed in Song never took place.
Abstract
The current article deals with the history of East Asian states – with a focus on China – from the late Han age (ca the second century) to the end of Song (the thirteenth century). It examines mediaeval East Asian history focusing on the process through which bureaucratic statehood gradually developed. The aim of this article is to use the factual material on the development of bureaucratic statehood in East Asia in order to reconsider the Marxist understanding of pre-capitalist formations as a whole. As is well-known, this understanding, in the USSR and beyond , since the early 1930s was defined by a dogmatic ‘five formations’ scheme in which pre-capitalist societies were to be placed into the Procrustean bed of either ‘slave-owning’ or ‘feudalism.’ This scheme was both extremely Eurocentric and hardly conformed to Marx’ own understanding of pre-capitalist societies: Marx used such terms as ‘slave-owning’ or ‘feudalism’ while referring to specifically European rather than global history. This scheme hardly fits into the empirically reconstructed picture of East Asia’s ancient or mediaeval history where, excluding certain epochs and certain relatively peripheral regions (Japan), neither slave-owning nor (quasi-)feudal structures ever played any significant part. Dissident or unorthodox Marxists, in the USSR and elsewhere, often attempted to complement this Eurocentric ‘five formations’ scheme by posing a special ‘Asian mode of production’ for Asian (or generally non-European) societies. However, this kind of conceptualization would concomitantly strengthen the Eurocentric bias by defining the European experience of slave-owning city-states or feudal hierarchies as ‘universal’ as opposed to the regional particularity of the ‘Asian mode of production.’ The present author, in his take on East Asia’s mediaeval history, proposes to jettison the concept of ‘feudalism’ altogether and focus instead on how East Asian societies – and specifically China – developed their productive bases with increasingly bureaucratized statehood as the scaffoldings of their superstructural framework. In the societies reaching a relatively high level of productive forces advancement – such as Song China – the process of state bureaucratization and development of meritocratic routines was accompanied by the first instance of de-aristocratization of a society in mediaeval world history. Having compared the meritocratic appointment, promotion and demotion routines in second to twelfth-century China with the bureaucratic procedures in other contemporary Eurasian states, this article concludes by agreeing with Samir Amin’s (1931-2018) definition of pre-modern China as a ‘perfected’ version of the tributary mode of production. At the same time, it has to be remembered that in the East Asian societies with a lesser degree of productive force development (Koryŏ etc.), de-aristocratization of the kind observed in Song never took place.
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