전근대 동아시아 천하체계와 조공체제
The “Tianxia System” Theory and Tribute Relations in Premodern East Asia
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초록
21세기 중국은 국제질서에서 점차 큰 역할을 담당하면서 이에 걸맞게 중국 특색(혹은 중국중심적)의 “천하체계”(Tianxia system) 이론을 제시하고 있다. 특히 자오팅양[赵汀阳]은 전통적 ‘천하’ 개념을 3000년 전 주나라의 역사기록을 통한 ‘실증적’ 해석에서 찾아 ‘중국식의 유교적 도덕성과 겸용보편주의를 갖춘 이상적인 세계 천하체계의 모델을 제시하였다. 이론의 핵심은 동아시아 국제질서체계가 필연적으로 중국을 중심으로 하는 계서적이면서도 호혜적 관계를 성립하고 유지한다는 주장인데 이는 동아시아 전통시대의 ‘조공관계’를 연상시킨다. 중국 외부의 대다수 학자들은 천하체계 이론이 오늘날 국제질서와 중국을 이해하는데 있어서 유용하다는 주장에 회의적이다. 하지만 그들 역시 중국이 가장 강한 국가이자 우월한 문명의 중심으로 인정받았던 시기 한족왕조의 세계관과 정책을 이해하는데 새로운 통찰력과 단서들을 제공한다고 말한다. 하지만 동아시아 국제질서에서 중국이 항상 중심이었던 것이 아니다. 또 ‘중국’이라는 개념은 고정된 것이 아니라 오랜 기간 진행된 정치적 타협과 문화적 교류의 산물이었다. 그러나 “천하체계”와 “조공관계” 이론에서 ‘중국’이란 개념은 역사성과 다양성의 의미를 상실한다. 여기에는 현재 중국이라는 공간의 역사를 모두 ‘중국사’로 인식하고자 하는 현재주의와 중국을 동아시아 역사에서 모든 것의 중심으로 보는 학문적 편견으로 드러난다. 동아시아 국제관계사에 보이는 “맹약체제” 혹은 “다원적 국제관계”는 천하체계 이론의 비역사성과 허상을 보여준다. 결국 전근대 동아시아 국제관계 연구는 문화론적 천하체계와 조공체제라는 일방적 시각을 넘어 지정학적 세력균형과 실리주의 등 다양한 이론과 ‘주변’의 입장에서 접근하여 비교·분석하는 노력이 요구된다.
Abstract
As China plays a larger role in today’s international relations, Chinese scholars are formulating China-centered theory that draws on East Asian historicial tradition. Zhao Tingyang has proposed the “Tianxia system” theory based on idealized world of Confucian morality. He asserts that East Asian world order will inevitably develop and maintain a world order that is China-centered, hierarchical, and mutually beneficial. This framework is reminiscent of the traditional notion of tribute relations. While many scholars are skeptical about applicability of “Tianxia system” theory to contemporary world order, they accept its utility for the historical periods when China was acknowledged as the center of superior civilization. The Tianxia system theory can provide new insights and clues for the world view and foreign policies of Han Chinese dynasties, but they were often merely one of the players in multi-centered world order. The historical concept of “China” was not fixed but a product of political compromises and cultural interactions, but it loses its historical and wide-ranging connotations in the theories of “Tianxia system” and tribute relations. This is a result of historical presentism that takes all history within the space occupied by today’s China as “Chinese history” and also reflects the scholarly trend that approaches East Asian history only from the China-centered perspective. Indeed, the “treaty relations” in the multi-centered world order in East Asia illustrate the collapse of the ideal of the tribute system and further highlight unhistoricity of the Tianxia system theory. Thus, the study of premodern East Asian interstate relations must pay attention to diverse theories and incorporate perspectives of the “periphery.”
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