Estimated dietary vitamin D intake and major vitamin D food sources of Koreans: based on the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2016–2019
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BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to establish a database (DB) of foods containing vitamin D that were investigated in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Sur vey (KNHANES), to estimate the dietar y vitamin D intake, to evaluate the dietar y adequacy of this intake, and to identif y the major food sources of Koreans that contain vitamin D. SUBJECTS/METHODS: This study used data from the KNHANES 2016–2019. Individuals aged ≥ 1 year who participated in the nutrition sur vey (n = 28,418) were included. The dietar y intake was assessed by the 24-h dietar y recall method and individual dietar y vitamin D intake was estimated using a newly established vitamin D DB. Dietar y adequacy was evaluated by comparing the dietar y intake of the participants with adequate intake (AI) as defined by Dietar y Reference Intakes for Koreans (KDRIs) 2020. RESULTS: The average dietar y vitamin D intake for all the subjects was 3.13 μg/d, which was 33.1% of AI. Dietar y vitamin D intake was lower in rural residents, the elderly, and those with low income. The major food groups that contributed to the total dietar y vitamin D intake were fish and shellfish (61.59%), eggs (17.75%), meat (8.03%), milk (4.25%), legumes (3.93%), and grains (3.84%). The top 10 individual food items that contributed to the total vitamin D intake were eggs (17.44%), squid (8.5%), eels (7.44%), salmon (5.35%), mackerel (5.27%), anchovies (4.65%), yellow croakers (4.58%), pork meat (4.47%), soymilk (4.46%), and skipjack tuna (3.80%). CONCLUSION: These results show that the mean dietar y vitamin D intake of Koreans is lower than the reference AI level. Nutritional policies need to be put in place to increase the vitamin D intake of Koreans in the future. In addition, comprehensive research on all the sources of vitamin D, including intake of supplements and biosynthesis in the skin, is required.
Abstract
BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to establish a database (DB) of foods containing vitamin D that were investigated in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Sur vey (KNHANES), to estimate the dietar y vitamin D intake, to evaluate the dietar y adequacy of this intake, and to identif y the major food sources of Koreans that contain vitamin D. SUBJECTS/METHODS: This study used data from the KNHANES 2016–2019. Individuals aged ≥ 1 year who participated in the nutrition sur vey (n = 28,418) were included. The dietar y intake was assessed by the 24-h dietar y recall method and individual dietar y vitamin D intake was estimated using a newly established vitamin D DB. Dietar y adequacy was evaluated by comparing the dietar y intake of the participants with adequate intake (AI) as defined by Dietar y Reference Intakes for Koreans (KDRIs) 2020. RESULTS: The average dietar y vitamin D intake for all the subjects was 3.13 μg/d, which was 33.1% of AI. Dietar y vitamin D intake was lower in rural residents, the elderly, and those with low income. The major food groups that contributed to the total dietar y vitamin D intake were fish and shellfish (61.59%), eggs (17.75%), meat (8.03%), milk (4.25%), legumes (3.93%), and grains (3.84%). The top 10 individual food items that contributed to the total vitamin D intake were eggs (17.44%), squid (8.5%), eels (7.44%), salmon (5.35%), mackerel (5.27%), anchovies (4.65%), yellow croakers (4.58%), pork meat (4.47%), soymilk (4.46%), and skipjack tuna (3.80%). CONCLUSION: These results show that the mean dietar y vitamin D intake of Koreans is lower than the reference AI level. Nutritional policies need to be put in place to increase the vitamin D intake of Koreans in the future. In addition, comprehensive research on all the sources of vitamin D, including intake of supplements and biosynthesis in the skin, is required.
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