고려 원종･충렬왕대 몽골의 고려 미곡 징발과 그 영향

Abstract

The war between Goryeo and the Mongols concluded in the final year of King Gojong’s reign, in 1259. Crown Prince Wang Jeon traveled to pay homage to Kublai Khan, and after Kublai ascended to the throne as the Great Khan, the relationship between the two countries shifted to a more amicable one. Following Mongol demands, Goryeo began paying annual tribute from the 4th year of King Wonjong’s reign (1263). These tribute goods primarily consisted of gold and silver items, luxurious fabrics, and paper. However, as the Mongols prepared for their campaign against Japan, they demanded Goryeo fulfill its obligations under The Six Demands. To fulfill these obligations, King Wonjong sought to return the capital from Ganghwa Island to Gaegyeong (the Return to the Mainland policy). However, military leaders like Kim Jun opposed the plan, and the Sambyeolcho forces (Three Elite Patrols) fiercely resisted the relocation. They even installed Prince Wang On as king and launched a rebellion from their base on Jindo Island. As the Sambyeolcho Rebellion dragged on, the Mongols dispatched reinforcements, and by 1273, the rebellion was suppressed. The following year, in 1274, preparations for the Mongol invasion of Japan began. The prolonged Sambyeolcho Rebellion, followed by preparations for the Japanese expedition, placed a significant burden on Goryeo. During the suppression of the Sambyeolcho, Goryeo was responsible for supplying provisions for the stationed Mongol troops. Goryeo even confiscated grain from government officials and was forced to provide feed for the Mongol army’s horses as well. The Mongols sought to establish military farms across Goryeo to secure food supplies, but Goryeo managed to restrict these to the Seohae region to limit Mongol influence. Even after the rebellion, Goryeo remained responsible for feeding the Mongol forces, laborers, and animals stationed there in preparation for the Japanese campaign. This grain requisition continued during King Chungnyeol’s reign. The first invasion of Japan in 1274, during King Chungnyeol’s first year, ended without much success, but preparations for the second invasion required even more grain requisition. The Goryeo court imposed additional taxes, collecting white gold from officials and even resorted to selling government positions to secure funds. King Chungnyeol petitioned the Mongol court to provide relief grain to ease Goryeo’s burden. Nevertheless, in 1281, the second invasion of Japan was launched, but once again, it ended in failure. Kublai Khan ordered preparations for a third invasion. However, in May 1285, Nayan rebelled, prompting the Mongol Secretariat to requisition 100,000 seok of grain. After the rebellion, the Mongols ordered Goryeo to send another 100,000 seok of relief grain to support the recovery of the Liaodong region. When Kadan invaded, Mongol reinforcements were dispatched, and once again, Goryeo had to supply their provisions. Nayan’s rebellion also temporarily established a logistics network connecting southern China, Korea’s western coastline, and the inland Liaodong region. As the Mongols resumed preparations for the Japanese invasion, they needed to establish a new logistics route from southern China to Goryeo, separate from the existing route from southern China to Dadu (Beijing). The reigns of King Wonjong and King Chungnyeol, when Mongols frequently requisitioned grain from Goryeo, coincided with severe droughts, floods, and other natural disasters, which made agricultural production difficult. In response, the Goryeo court encouraged land reclamation and development. Officials were granted Sapaejeon (賜牌田, officially-granted land), and Gwonnongsa (勸農使, agricultural commissioners) were dispatched to promote farming. However, the expansion of these Sapaejeon led to land monopolization, and the Gwonnongsa frequently extorted bribes from the peasants. The Goryeo government also frequently imposed temporary taxes, known as Gwaryeom, which were collected not only from peasants but even from slaves, further destabilizing the tax system. This instability in land ownership and taxation forced many peasants to seek the protection of powerful local elites. At the same time, however, coastal and island regions underwent land reclamation and embankment projects, bringing new socioeconomic changes. Paddy farming gradually expanded, and transplanting techniques began to appear in some areas. Additionally, the introduction of southern Chinese rice varieties diversified rice cultivation and further advanced Goryeo’s rice farming techniques. These changes can be understood as part of Goryeo’s efforts to cope with the ongoing grain requisitions by the Mongols, declining agricultural productivity due to natural disasters, and the resulting disruptions in land tenure and the tax system during the 13th century.