The Understanding of and Response to Western Learning by Confucian Scholars of the Yeongnam Region in the 19th Century: Emperor Above, Master of Heaven, and Worshiping Rites for the Spirit

Abstract

This study reviews how the Confucian scholars of the Yeongnam region in Joseon around the 19th century critically perceived Western Learning, particularly the Catholic concepts of Deus and anima. The Confucian scholars of Yeongnam primarily focused on the two aspects of the principle from a Neo-Confucian worldview: the aspect of non-action (muwi) and the aspect of ruling over (jujae). They understood the notion of Emperor Above (sangje) through this ruling nature of the principle. While guarding against the favorable interpretation of Western Learning by the Southerners of the Gyeonggi area such as Yi Ik and An Jeongbok, the Southerners of the Yeongnam region felt the necessity to distinguish their scholarly identity more clearly. The disciples of Yi Sangjeong such as Nam Hanjo, Jo Suldo, Jeong Jongno, Ryu Geonhyu, and Ryu Chimyeong criticized the concept of the Master of Heaven (cheonju) and emphasized the aspect of non-action found in Emperor Above in Confucianism, namely, the impersonal and universal properties of the Great Ultimate (taegeuk) and the principle (ri). Although Western books introducing Catholicism argued that Deus was an immaterial, eternal, and intellectual being, Confucian scholars regarded that a personified Master of Heaven, who had specific emotions and will and judged the good and evil of humans, was ultimately in the same finite category as divine force (yeongsin). In face of such limited and personified characteristic of the Master of Heaven, the Confucian scholars of the Yeongnam region further emphasized the universality and public nature of the principle. This was particularly the case of ancestral spirit (hollyeong), which was universal and public. According to them, material force was constantly regenerated in accordance with the universality of the principle. One was able to perform a worshiping rite and reciprocally connect with the objects of worship, be it one’s ancestors or the sages, since the principle deserved to be revered and worshiped. The key to the worshiping ritual was to therefore understand and perceive the principle with one’s mind and venerate the proper objects of worship. The spirit (sin) only existed when the principle was proper. The encounter with the arguments of Western Learning and Catholicism by the Southerners of the Gyeonggi area who were of the Seongho School as well as the Confucian scholars of the Yeongnam region served as an important opportunity that triggered their various inner capabilities. While the dissemination of Western Learning agitated the intellectuals of Joseon and divided their lines of thought, it also provided an impetus for them to actively reflect upon the beliefs and values they harbored. This is evident by the intellectual response of the Confucian scholars of the Yeongnam area who critically reviewed the meaning of Emperor Above, ancestral spirit, and worshiping rituals.