고대 불교조각의 生靈座, 형상과 그 의미
The Forms and Meanings of Living Creatures in Ancient Buddhist Sculpture
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What are the grotesque living creatures that look like humans but are not humans under the feet of the image of the Four Heavenly Kings? They are commonly called demons or evil spirits, but are they really evil beings to be trampled by the Four Heavenly Kings? Furthermore, how should we understand those serving the Four Heavenly Kings politely and those agonizing under the feet? Why do such two different types appear in the same set of the Four Heavenly Kings image? This study was initiated by a few questions like these. As expected, these ‘grotesque living creatures’ are Yakṣas. This makes it clear that Yakṣas are divinities subordinate to the Four Heavenly Kings and families ruled under the feet. But the problem is in the very complicated nature of Yakṣa. In early Buddhist literature, Yakṣa is sometimes described as a being defending the Buddhist truth, and sometimes as an evil being devouring people and confronting Buddhism. It is supposed that good-natured Yakṣas were expressed as beings who serve the Four Heavenly Kings as their superior beings, and vicious Yakṣas as being disciplined through trampling. In particular, the image that the Four Heavenly Kings are treading on the face or breasts of the living creatures made a significant contribution to the tradition that Yakṣas were called ‘demons’ or ‘evil spirits.’ As has been known until now, however, Yakṣas were not intended to be beings to be trampled or destroyed but beings to be subdued and put under the control of the Four Heavenly Kings for their roles in protecting Buddhism. Yakṣa has been expressed in various forms, but the most common one is a dwarf. They are basically depicted weirdly with short and thin arms and legs, potbelly, hair stretching upward, etc., but sometimes they are transformed into animals such as ox, sheep, and deer. Yakṣas are a group of spirits, and therefore they are occasionally called ‘Yakṣa spirits,’ but it is not correct to call them ‘demons’ or ‘evil spirits.’ It is undeniable that they have viciousness, but with their incorporation into Buddhism their good nature was emphasized and it is hard to see Yakṣas serving the Four Heavenly Kings politely on their two hands or shoulders as evil beings. Basically riding or sitting on something means subduing it. Even if Yakṣas are serving the Four Heavenly Kings on their two hands instead of being trampled under the feet, ‘being under the feet’ is sufficient evidence showing that Yakṣas are subordinates under the command of the Four Heavenly Kings. Yakṣa is a horrible being that devours people but it was regarded as a sufficiently controllable being, and the ultimate purpose was not destroying it but subduing and using it in defending the Buddhist truth under the command of the Heavenly Kings.
Abstract
What are the grotesque living creatures that look like humans but are not humans under the feet of the image of the Four Heavenly Kings? They are commonly called demons or evil spirits, but are they really evil beings to be trampled by the Four Heavenly Kings? Furthermore, how should we understand those serving the Four Heavenly Kings politely and those agonizing under the feet? Why do such two different types appear in the same set of the Four Heavenly Kings image? This study was initiated by a few questions like these. As expected, these ‘grotesque living creatures’ are Yakṣas. This makes it clear that Yakṣas are divinities subordinate to the Four Heavenly Kings and families ruled under the feet. But the problem is in the very complicated nature of Yakṣa. In early Buddhist literature, Yakṣa is sometimes described as a being defending the Buddhist truth, and sometimes as an evil being devouring people and confronting Buddhism. It is supposed that good-natured Yakṣas were expressed as beings who serve the Four Heavenly Kings as their superior beings, and vicious Yakṣas as being disciplined through trampling. In particular, the image that the Four Heavenly Kings are treading on the face or breasts of the living creatures made a significant contribution to the tradition that Yakṣas were called ‘demons’ or ‘evil spirits.’ As has been known until now, however, Yakṣas were not intended to be beings to be trampled or destroyed but beings to be subdued and put under the control of the Four Heavenly Kings for their roles in protecting Buddhism. Yakṣa has been expressed in various forms, but the most common one is a dwarf. They are basically depicted weirdly with short and thin arms and legs, potbelly, hair stretching upward, etc., but sometimes they are transformed into animals such as ox, sheep, and deer. Yakṣas are a group of spirits, and therefore they are occasionally called ‘Yakṣa spirits,’ but it is not correct to call them ‘demons’ or ‘evil spirits.’ It is undeniable that they have viciousness, but with their incorporation into Buddhism their good nature was emphasized and it is hard to see Yakṣas serving the Four Heavenly Kings politely on their two hands or shoulders as evil beings. Basically riding or sitting on something means subduing it. Even if Yakṣas are serving the Four Heavenly Kings on their two hands instead of being trampled under the feet, ‘being under the feet’ is sufficient evidence showing that Yakṣas are subordinates under the command of the Four Heavenly Kings. Yakṣa is a horrible being that devours people but it was regarded as a sufficiently controllable being, and the ultimate purpose was not destroying it but subduing and using it in defending the Buddhist truth under the command of the Heavenly Kings.
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