Metaphors are Conceptual Schemata that are Emergent Over Tokens of Use
0
조회
0
다운로드
0
인용
0
참고문헌
키워드
초록
This paper presents the view that metaphors are conceptual schemata that emerge, for individual speakers, over metaphorical tokens of use to which they are exposed, and that the conceptual structures which comprise metaphor are subject to frequency effects. The theory posits that metaphorical conventionalization, at the level of both conceptual metaphors and particular expressions, reflects the operation of linguistic frequency effects. Key properties of metaphor—the unevenness of metaphorical mappings, the gradedness of metaphor, idiosyncracy of meaning for individual expressions, and the emergence of metaphorical ability in children—are accounted for in an exemplar theorybased model of emergence for metaphorical schemata. It is asserted here that a usage-based view of language, and the tools of an approach whereby language processing and storage are seen as driven by frequency effects, provide the best lens for understanding the properties of metaphor in all of its types.
Abstract
This paper presents the view that metaphors are conceptual schemata that emerge, for individual speakers, over metaphorical tokens of use to which they are exposed, and that the conceptual structures which comprise metaphor are subject to frequency effects. The theory posits that metaphorical conventionalization, at the level of both conceptual metaphors and particular expressions, reflects the operation of linguistic frequency effects. Key properties of metaphor—the unevenness of metaphorical mappings, the gradedness of metaphor, idiosyncracy of meaning for individual expressions, and the emergence of metaphorical ability in children—are accounted for in an exemplar theorybased model of emergence for metaphorical schemata. It is asserted here that a usage-based view of language, and the tools of an approach whereby language processing and storage are seen as driven by frequency effects, provide the best lens for understanding the properties of metaphor in all of its types.
참고문헌 (85)
- Allbritton, D. W., "Metaphor-Based schemata and text representations : Making connections through conceptual metaphors", Journal of experimental Psychology : Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, pp.612~625 (1995)
- Barlow, M., "A schema-based approach to grammatical description, In The Reality of Linguistic Rules" (1994), John Benjamins
- Beckner, C., "A Usage-Based Account of Constituency and Reanalysis", Language Learning, 59, pp.27~46 (2009)
- Berlin, B., "Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution" (1969), University of California Press
- Billow, R. M., "A Cognitive Developmental Study of Metaphor Comprehension", Developmental Psychology, 11, pp.415~423 (1975)
- Bosman, N., "Verb Particle Constructions with km and the Motivation Theory", South African Journal of Linguistics, 17(4), pp.219~233 (1999)
- Bowdle, B. F., "The Career of Metaphor", Psychological Review, 112(1), pp.193~216 (2005)
- Broderick, V., "Young Children’s Comprehension of Similarities Underlying Metaphor", Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 20(2), pp.65~81 (1991)
- Brooks, L., "Nonanalytic concept formation and memory for instances, In Cognition and categorization", pp.169~211 (1978), Erlbaum
- Bybee, J., "Morphology: a study of the relation between meaning and form" (1985), John Benjamins
- Bybee, J., "Regular Morphology and the Lexicon", Language and Cognitive Processes, 10, pp.425~455 (1995)
- Bybee, J., "Phonology and Language Use" (2001), Cambridge University Press
- Bybee, J., "A usage-based approach to Spanish verbs of ‘becoming’", Language, 82, pp.323~355 (2006)
- Bybee, J., "The effect of usage on degrees of constituency: the reduction of don’t in English", Linguistics, 37(4), pp.575~596 (1999)
- Cacciari, C., "Understanding idioms: Do visual images reflect figurative meanings?", European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 7, pp.283~305 (1995)
- Carr, S., "The Effects of Prior Knowledge and Schema Activation Strategies on the Inferential Reading Comprehension of Children with and without Learning Disabilities", Learning Disability Quarterly, 19(1), pp.48~61 (1996)
- Chomsky, N., "Aspects of the Theory of Syntax" (1965), MIT Press
- Chomsky, N., "Rules and Representations" (1980), Columbia University Press
- Clausner, T., "Productivity and Schematicity in Metaphors", Cognitive Science, 21(3), pp.247~282 (1997)
- Company Company, C., "Subjectification of verbs into discourse markers: Semantic- pragmatic change only?, In Topics in subjectification and modalization", pp.97~121 (2006), John Benjamins
- Croft, W., "Radical Construction Grammar: Syntactic Theory in Typological Perspective" (2001), Oxford University Press
- Croft, W., "Exemplar semantics", ~ (2007)
- Croft, W., "Cognitive Linguistics" (2004), Cambridge University Press
- "The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA): 385 million words, 1990-present" (2008)[URL]
- Deignan, A., "Corpus-based research into metaphor, In Researching and applying metaphor", pp.37~48 (1999), Cambridge University Press
- Deignan, A., "Metaphor and Corpus Linguistics" (2005), John Benjamins
- Dirven, R., "The conceptualisation of vertical Space in English: The Case of Tall, In Topics in Cognitive Linguistics" (1988), John Benjamins
- Du Bois, J. W., "Santa Barbara corpus of spoken American English, Part 1" (2000), Linguistic Data Consortium
- Du Bois, J. W., "Santa Barbara corpus of spoken American English, Part 2" (2003), Linguistic Data Consortium
- Erman, B., "The idiom principle and the open choice principle", Text, 20(1), pp.29~62 (2000)
- Estes, W. K., "Array models for category learning", Cognitive Psychology, 18, pp.500~549 (1986)
- Evans, M. A., "Attribute saliency and metaphor interpretation in school-age children", Journal of Child Language, 15(2), pp.435~449 (1988)
- Gibbs, R. W., "The Poetics of Mind" (1994), Cambridge University Press
- Gibbs, R. W., "Idioms and mental imagery : the metaphoric motivation for idiomatic meaning", Cognition, 36, pp.35~68 (1990)
- Gibbs, R. W., "Metaphor in idiom comprehension", Journal of Memory and Language, 37, pp.141~154 (1997)
- Givón, T., "Syntax: A functional-typological introduction. Volume I" (1984), John Benjamins
- Goldberg, A., "Constructions: a construction grammar approach to argument structure" (1995), The University of Chicago Press
- Goldberg, A., "Constructions at work: the nature of generalization in language" (2006), Oxford University Press
- Grady, J., "THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS revisited", Cognitive Linguistics, 8(4), pp.267~290 (1997)
- Greenberg, J., "Language universals, with special reference to feature hierarchies" (1966), Mouton
- Haiman, J., "Ritualization and the development of language, In Perspectives on Grammaticalization", pp.3~28 (1994), Benjamins
- Hare, M. L., "Ambiguity and frequency effects in regular verb inflection, In Frequency and the Emergence of Linguistic Structure", pp.181~200 (2001), John Benjamins
- Hawkins, J. A., "A Performance Theory of Order and Constituency" (1994), Cambridge University Press
- Hay, J., "Parsing and productivity, In Yearbook of morphology, 2001", pp.203~235 (2002)
- Hintzman, D. L., "“Schema abstraction” in a multiple-trace memory model", Psychological Review, 93, pp.411~428 (1986)
- Kovecses, Z., "Metaphor: A Practical Introduction" (2002), Oxford University Press
- Lakoff, G., "Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind" (1987), University of Chicago Press
- Lakoff, G., "The Invariance Hypothesis", Cognitive Linguistics, 1(1), pp.39~78 (1990)
- Lakoff, G., "The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor, In Metaphor and Thought" (1993), Cambridge University Press
- The master metaphor list. Draft 2nd ed, "Lakoff, G.", University of California at Berkeley., ~ (1991)
- Lakoff, G., "Metaphors we live by" (1980), University of Chicago Press
- Lakoff, G., "The cognitive model of anger inherent in American English, In Cultural models in language and thought" (1987), Cambridge University Press
- Langacker, R. W., "Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Volume 1: Theoretical Prerequisites" (1987), Stanford University Press
- Lindblom, B., "Self-organizing processes and the explanation of phonological universals", Linguistics, 21(1), pp.181~204 (1983)
- McClelland, J., "The TRACE model of Speech recognition", Cognitive Psychology, 18, pp.1~86 (1986)
- Medin, D. L., "Problem structure and the use of base-rate information from experience", Journal of Experimental Psychology : General, 117, pp.68~85 (1988)
- Musolff, A., "The heart of the European body politic : British and German perspectives on Europe’s central organ", Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 25(5), pp.437~452 (2004)
- Nippold, M. A., "Verbal and Perceptual Analogical Reasoning and Proportional Metaphor Comprehension in Young Children", Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 30(3), pp.367~376 (1987)
- Nosofsky, R. M., "Attention, similarity, and the identification-categorization relationship", Journal of Experimental Psychology : General, 115, pp.39~57 (1986)
- Nunberg, G., "The Pragmatics of Reference" (1978), Indiana Linguistics Club
- Nunberg, G., "Idioms", Language, 70(3), pp.491~538 (1994)
- Pierrehumbert, J., "Syllable structure and word structure: a study of triconsonantal clusters in English, In Phonological Structure and Phonetic Form: Papers in Laboratory Phonology III", pp.68~190 (1994), Cambridge University Press
- Pierrehumbert, J., "Exemplar dynamics: word frequency, lenition and contrast, In Frequency and the Emergence of Linguistic Structure", pp.137~157 (2001), John Benjamins
- Renouf, A., "What do you think of that? A pilot study of the phrasology of the core words of English, In New Directions in English Language Corpora: Methodology, Results, Software Developments", pp.301~317 (1992), Mouton de Gruyter
- Renouf, A., "Collocational frameworks in English, In English Corpus Linguistics: Studies in the Honour of Jan Svartvik", pp.128~143 (1991), Longman
- Reddy, M., "The Conduit Metaphor: a case of frame conflict in our language about language, In Metaphor and Thought" (1979), Cambridge University Press
- Rosch, E., "Natural categories", Cognitive Psychology, 4, pp.328~350 (1973)
- Sanford, D. R., "Discourse & Metaphor : A Corpus-Driven Inquiry", Corpus Linguistics & Linguistic Theory, 4(2), pp.209~234 (2008)
- Sanford, D. R., "Metaphor and phonological reduction in English idiomatic expressions", Cognitive Linguistics, 19(4), pp.585~603 (2008)
- Seitz, J. A., "Metaphor, Symbolic Play, and Logical Thought in Early Childhood", Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 123(4), pp.373~391 (1997)
- Shank, C., "Figurative language, transitivity, and the development of epistemicity: a cognitive linguistic case study of the English verbs of tactile perception", pp.2007
- Smith, D., "Wanted: a new psychology of exemplars", Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59(1), pp.47~53 (2005)
- Siltanen, S. A., "Effects of Three Levels of Context on Children’s Metaphor Comprehension", Journal of Genetic Psychology, 150(2), pp.197~215 (1989)
- Svanlund, J., "Metaphor and Convention", Cognitive Linguistics, 18(1), pp.47~89 (2007)
- Sweetser, E., "From etymology to pragmatics: metaphorical and cultural aspects of semantic structure" (1990), Cambridge University Press
- Taylor, J., "Syntactic constructions as prototype categories, In The new psychology of language" (1998), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers
- Tissari, H., "Metaphors we love by: on the cognitive metaphors of love from the 15th century to the present", Studia Anglica Posnaniensia: international review of English Studies Annual, pp.217~226 (2001)
- Travis, C., "Dizque : a Colombian Evidentiality Strategy", Linguistics, 44(6), pp.1269~1297 (2006)
- Turner, M., "Conceptual Integration and Formal Expression", Metaphor & Symbolic Activity, 10(3), pp.183~204 (1995)
- Veale, T., "Metaphor, memory and meaning : Symbolic and connectionist issues in metaphor interpretation", pp.1996
- Vitevich, M. S., "Phonotactics and Syllable Stress : implications for the processing of spoken nonsense words", Language and Speech, 40, pp.47~62 (1997)
- Vosniadou, S., "Sources of Difficulty in the Young Child’s Understanding of Metaphorical Language", Child Development, 55, pp.1588~1606 (1984)
- Waggoner, J. E., "Betty is a Bouncing Bubble: Children’s Comprehension of Emotion-Descriptive Metaphors", Developmental Psychology, 25(1), pp.152~163 (1989)
- Wilson, D. V., "Formulaic language and adjective categories in eight centuries of the Spanish expression of ‘becoming’", quedar(se), pp.University of New Mexico.[DOI]
- Wray, A., "The functions of formulaic language: an Integrated Model", Language & Communication, 20, pp.1~28 (2000)
