Dynamics of alpine treelines: positive feedbacks and global, regional and local controls
1
조회
0
다운로드
0
인용
0
참고문헌
키워드
초록
Whilst it is clear that increasing temperatures from global environmental change will impact the positions of alpine treelines, it is likely that a range of regional and local scaled factors will mediate the overall impact of global scale climate drivers. We summarized 12 categories of abiotic and biotic factors as 4 groups determining treeline positions. First, there are global factors related to climate-induced growth limitation and carbon limitation. Second, there are seven regional and local factors related to treeline dynamics including frost stress, topography, water stress, snow, wind, fire and non-fire disturbance. Third, species-specific factors can control treeline dynamics through their influence on reproduction and life history traits. Fourth, there are positive feedbacks in structuring the dynamics of treelines. Globally, the com¬monly accepted growth limitation hypothesis is that growth at a treeline is limited by temperature. Meanwhile, positive feedbacks between canopy cover and tree establishment are likely to control the spatial pattern and temporal dynamics of many treelines. The presence of non-linear dynamics at treelines has implications for the use of treelines as barometers of climate change because the lagged responses and abrupt shifts inherent in non-equilibrium systems may combine to mask the overall climate trend.
Abstract
Whilst it is clear that increasing temperatures from global environmental change will impact the positions of alpine treelines, it is likely that a range of regional and local scaled factors will mediate the overall impact of global scale climate drivers. We summarized 12 categories of abiotic and biotic factors as 4 groups determining treeline positions. First, there are global factors related to climate-induced growth limitation and carbon limitation. Second, there are seven regional and local factors related to treeline dynamics including frost stress, topography, water stress, snow, wind, fire and non-fire disturbance. Third, species-specific factors can control treeline dynamics through their influence on reproduction and life history traits. Fourth, there are positive feedbacks in structuring the dynamics of treelines. Globally, the com¬monly accepted growth limitation hypothesis is that growth at a treeline is limited by temperature. Meanwhile, positive feedbacks between canopy cover and tree establishment are likely to control the spatial pattern and temporal dynamics of many treelines. The presence of non-linear dynamics at treelines has implications for the use of treelines as barometers of climate change because the lagged responses and abrupt shifts inherent in non-equilibrium systems may combine to mask the overall climate trend.
참고문헌 (170)
- Alftine KJ, "Directional positive feedback and pattern at an alpine tree line", J Veg Sci, 15, pp.3~12 (2004)
- Anadon-Rosell A, "Growth and phenology of three dwarf shrub species in a six-year soil warming experiment at the Alpine treeline", PLoS ONE, 9, pp.e100577~ (2014)[DOI]
- Aulitzky H, "Die Bodentemperaturen in der Kampfzone oberhalb der Waldgrenze und imsubalpinen Zirben-Lärchenwald", Mitt Forstl Bund Mariabrunn, 59, pp.153~208 (1961)
- Autio J, "Environmental Factors Controlling the Position of the Actual Timberline and Treeline on the Fells of Finnish Lapland" (2006), Oulu University Press
- Autio J, "The impact of elevation, topography and snow load damage of trees on the position of the actual timberline on the fells in central Finnish Lapland", Fennia, 183, pp.15~36 (2005)
- Bader MY, "Tropical Alpine Treelines: how ecological processes control vegetation patterning and dynamics", 박사, pp.2007
- Bader MY, "A simple spatial model exploring positive feedbacks at tropical alpine treelines", Arct Antarct Alp Res, 40, pp.269~278 (2008)
- Bader MY, "A topography-based model of forest cover at the alpine tree line in the tropical Andes", J Biogeogr, 35, pp.711~723 (2008)
- Baig MN, "The effects of wind and temperature on cuticular transpiration of Picea abies and Pinus cembra and their significance in dessication damage at the alpine treeline", Oecologia, 47, pp.252~256 (1980)
- Bale JS, "Herbivory in global climate change research: direct effects of rising temperature on insect herbivores", Glob Change Biol, 8, pp.1~16 (2002)
- Ball MC, "Microclimate above grass adversely affects spring growth of seedling snow gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora)", Plant Cell Environ, 20, pp.155~166 (1997)
- Barbeito I, "Factors driving mortality and growth at treeline: a 30-year experiment of 92000 conifers", Ecology, 93, pp.389~401 (2012)
- Batllori E, "Seedling recruitment, survival and facilitation in alpine Pinus uncinata treeline ecotones. Implications and potential responses to climate warming", Glob Ecol Biogeogr, 18, pp.460~472 (2009)
- Batllori E, "Regional treeline dynamics in response to global change in the Pyrenees", J Ecol, 96, pp.1275~1288 (2008)
- Bebi P, "Snow avalanche disturbances in forest ecosystems—State of research and implications for management", For Ecol Manage, 257, pp.1883~1892 (2009)
- Bekker MF, "Positive feedback between tree establishment and patterns of subalpine forest advancement, Glacier National Park, Montana, USA", Arct Antarc Alp Res, 37, pp.97~107 (2005)
- Berdanier AB, "Global treeline position", Nat Educ Knowl, 3, pp.11~ (2010)
- Black RA, "Reproductive ecology of Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP., at the tree line near Inuvik, Northwest Territories, Canada", Ecol Monogr, 50, pp.331~354 (1980)
- Bolli J, "Regeneration dynamics of Norway spruce (Picea abies L.) on a subalpine meadow near the treeline in Sedrun, Kt. Graubünden, Switzerland", Silva Fenn, 41, pp.55~70 (2007)
- Brown CD, "Tree-line dynamics: adding fire to climate change prediction", Arctic, 63, pp.488~492 (2010)
- Brown DG, "Comparison of vegetation-topography relationships at the alpine treeline ecotone", Phys Geogr, 15, pp.125~145 (1994)
- Brown DG, "Predicting vegetation types at treeline using topography and biophysical disturbance variables", J Veg Sci, 5, pp.641~656 (1994)
- Butler DR, "Stability of alpine treeline in Glacier National Park, Montana, USA", Phytocoenologia, 22, pp.485~500 (1994)
- Butler DR, "Influences of geomorphology and geology on alpine treeline in the American West - more important than climatic influences?", Phys Geogr, 28, pp.434~450 (2007)
- Cairns DM, "Multi-scale analysis of soil nutrients at alpine treeline in Glacier National Park, Montana", Phys Geogr, 20, pp.256~271 (1999)
- Cairns DM, "Environmental variables influencing the carbon balance at the alpine treeline: a modeling approach", J Veg Sci, 9, pp.679~692 (1998)
- Cairns DM, "Herbivory influences tree lines", J Ecol, 92, pp.1019~1024 (2004)
- Camarero JJ, "Pace and pattern of recent treeline dynamics: response of ecotones to climatic variability in the Spanish Pyrenees", Clim Chang, 63, pp.181~200 (2004)
- Carlson BZ, "Working toward integrated models of alpine plant distribution", Alp Bot, 123, pp.41~53 (2013)
- Case BS, "A novel framework for disentangling the scale-dependent influences of abiotic factors on alpine treeline position", Ecography, 37, pp.838~851 (2014)
- Chang NK, "The theory of boundary distribution of plant and wave character of the timber line on Mt. Paektu", Korean J Ecol, 21, pp.491~499 (1998)
- Chauchard S, "An increase in the upper tree-limit of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) in the Alps since the mid-20th century: a land-use change phenomenon", For Ecol Manage, 259, pp.1406~1415 (2010)
- Cho DS, "Community structure, and size and age distribution of conifers in subalpine Korean Fir (Abies koreana) Forest in Mt. Chiri", Korean J Ecol, 17, pp.415~424 (1994)
- Cochrane PM, "Water relations of Eucalyptus pauciflora near the alpine tree line in winter", Tree Physiol, 4, pp.45~52 (1988)
- Cogbill CV, "The latitude-elevation relationship for spruce-fir forest and treeline along the Appalachian mountain chain", Vegetatio, 94, pp.153~175 (1991)
- Cuevas JG, "Tree recruitment at the Nothofagus pumilio alpine timberline in Tierra del Fuego, Chile", J Ecol, 88, pp.840~855 (2000)
- Cullen LE, "Disturbance and climate warming influences on New Zealand Nothofagus tree-line population dynamics", J Ecol, 89, pp.1061~1071 (2001)
- Daly C, "Seedling establishment by conifers above the tree limit on Niwot Ridge, Front Range, Colorado, USA", Arct Alp Res, 17, pp.389~400 (1985)
- Danby RK, "Variability, contingency and rapid change in recent subarctic alpine tree line dynamics", J Ecol, 95, pp.352~363 (2007)
- Dang H, "Treeline dynamics in relation to climatic variability in the Shennongjia Mountains, Central China", Can J For Res, 39, pp.1848~1858 (2009)
- Daniels LD, "Regional and local effects of disturbance and climate on altitudinal treelines in northern Patagonia", J Veg Sci, 14, pp.733~742 (2003)
- Devi N, "Expanding forests and changing growth forms in Siberian larch at the Polar Urals treeline during the 20th century", Glob Change Biol, 14, pp.1581~1591 (2008)
- Díaz-Varela RA, "Spatio-temporal analysis of alpine ecotones: a spatial explicit model targeting altitudinal vegetation shifts", Ecol Model, 221, pp.621~633 (2010)
- Dullinger S, "Modelling climate change-driven treeline shifts: relative effects of temperature increase, dispersal and invisibility", J Ecol, 92, pp.241~252 (2004)
- Fajardo A, "Distinguishing local from global climate influences in the variation of carbon status with altitude in a tree line species", Glob Ecol Biogeogr, 20, pp.307~318 (2011)
- Fajardo A, "Variation of mobile carbon reserves in trees at the alpine treeline ecotone is under environmental control", New Phytol, 195, pp.794~802 (2012)
- Feeley KJ, "Upslope migration of Andean trees", J Biogeogr, 38, pp.783~791 (2011)
- Fletcher MS, "A fire driven shift from forest to non-forest: evidence for alternative stable states?", Ecology, 95, pp.2504~2513 (2014)
- Gamache I, "Height growth response of tree line black spruce to recent climate warming across the forest-tundra of eastern Canada", J Ecol, 92, pp.835~845 (2004)
- Gehrig-Fasel J, "Tree line shifts in the Swiss Alps: climate change or land abandonment?", J Veg Sci, 18, pp.571~582 (2007)
- Germino MJ, "Sky exposure, crown architecture, and low‐temperature photoinhibition in conifer seedlings at alpine treeline", Plant Cell Environ, 22, pp.407~415 (1999)
- Germino MJ, "Conifer seedling distribution and survival in an alpine-treeline ecotone", Plant Ecol, 162, pp.157~168 (2002)
- Gottfried M, "Coincidence of the alpine–nival ecotone with the summer snowline", Environ Res Lett, 6, pp.014013~ (2011)
- Gottfried M, "A finescaled predictive model for changes in species distributions patterns of high mountain plants induced by climate warming", Divers Distrib, 5, pp.241~252 (1999)
- Grabherr G, "Climate effects on mountain plants", Nature, 369, pp.448~ (1994)
- Grace J, "Plant Responses to Wind" (1977), Academic Press
- Grace J, "Tree lines", Phil Trans R Soc Lond B, 324, pp.233~245 (1989)
- Grace J, "Impacts of climate change on the tree line", Ann Bot, 90, pp.537~544 (2002)
- Green K, "Causes of stability in the alpine treeline in the Snowy Mountains of Australia–a natural experiment", Aust J Bot, 57, pp.171~179 (2009)
- Green K, "Tree-limit ribbons in the snowy mountains, Australia: characterization and recent seedling establishment", Arct Antarc Alp Res, 44, pp.180~187 (2012)
- Guisan A, "Assessing alpine plant vulnerability to climate change: a modeling perspective", Integr Assess, 1, pp.307~320 (2000)
- Gworek JR, "Changes in biotic interactions and climate determine recruitment of Jeffrey pine along an elevation gradient", For Ecol Manage, 239, pp.57~68 (2007)
- Hagedorn F, "Treeline advances along the Urals mountain range - driven by improved winter conditions?", Glob Change Biol, 20, pp.3530~3543 (2014)
- Handa IT, "A test of the treeline carbon limitation hypothesis by in situ CO2 enrichment and defoliation", Ecology, 86, pp.1288~1300 (2005)
- Harsch MA, "Treeline form - a potential key to understanding treeline dynamics", Glob Ecol Biogeogr, 20, pp.582~596 (2011)
- Harsch MA, "Are treelines advancing? A meta-analysis of treeline response to climate warming", Ecol Lett, 12, pp.1040~1049 (2009)
- Harvell CD, "Climate warming and disease risks for terrestrial and marine biota", Science, 296, pp.2158~2162 (2002)
- Hättenschwiler S, "Responses to recent climate warming of Pinus sylvestris and Pinus cembra within their montane transition zone in the Swiss Alps", J Veg Sci, 6, pp.357~368 (1995)
- Hättenschwiler S, "Seedling occurrence in alpine treeline conifers: a case study from the central Rocky Mountains, USA", Acta Oecol, 20, pp.219~224 (1999)
- Heikkinen O, "What determines the timberline?", Fennia, 180, pp.67~74 (2002)
- Hemstrom MA, "Fire and other disturbances of the forests in Mount Rainier National Park", Quat Res, 18, pp.32~51 (1982)
- Herrero A, "Limits of pine forest distribution at the treeline: herbivory matters", Plant Ecol, 213, pp.459~469 (2011)
- Hertel D, "Below-ground response of Norway spruce to climate conditions at Mt. Brocken (Germany)-A re-assessment of Central Europe’s northernmost treeline", Flora, 206, pp.127~135 (2011)
- Hirota M, "Global resilience of tropical forest and savanna to critical transitions", Science, 334, pp.232~235 (2011)
- Hoch G, "The carbon charging of pines at the climatic treeline: a global comparison", Oecologia, 135, pp.10~21 (2003)
- Hoch G, "Growth, demography and carbon relations of Polylepis trees at the world’s highest treeline", Funct Ecol, 19, pp.941~951 (2005)
- Hoch G, "Growth and carbon relations of tree line forming conifers at constant vs. variable low temperatures", J Ecol, 97, pp.57~66 (2009)
- Hoch G, "Altitudinal increase of mobile carbon pools in Pinus cembra suggests sink limitation of growth at the Swiss treeline", Oikos, 98, pp.361~374 (2002)
- Holtmeier FK, "Mountain Timberlines: Ecology, Patchiness and Dynamics" (2003), Kluwer Academic Publishers
- Holtmeier FK, "Sensitivity and response of northern hemisphere altitudinal and polar treelines to environmental change at landscape and local scales", Glob Ecol Biogeogr, 14, pp.395~410 (2005)
- Holtmeier FK, "Treeline advance – driving processes and adverse factors", Landsc Online, 1, pp.1~33 (2007)
- Holtmeier FK, "Wind as an ecological agent at treelines in North America, the Alps, and the European Subarctic", Phys Geogr, 31, pp.203~233 (2010)
- 임병선, "Global warming and biodiversity model projections", Journal of Ecology and Environment, 35(3), pp.157~166 (2012), 한국생태학회[DOI]
- 임병선, "Relationship between Global Warming and Species Richness of Vascular Plants", Journal of Plant Biology(한국식물학회지), 50(3), pp.321~324 (2007), 한국식물학회
- Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, "IPCC", IPCC, ~ (2007)
- Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, "IPCC", IPCC, ~ (2013)
- Jeffers ES, "Abrupt environmental changes drive shifts in tree–grass interaction outcomes", J Ecol, 99, pp.1063~1070 (2011)
- Jobbagy EG, "Global controls of forest line elevation in the northern and southern hemispheres", Glob Ecol Biogeogr, 9, pp.253~268 (2000)
- Johnson DM, "Abiotic factors limiting photosynthesis in Abies lasiocarpa and Picea engelmannii seedlings below and above the alpine timberline", Tree Physiol, 24, pp.377~386 (2004)
- Kim JH, "Global Warming" (2012), Seoul National University Press
- Knox KJE, "Fire severity, feedback effects and resilience to alternative community states in forest assemblages", For Ecol Manage, 265, pp.47~54 (2012)
- Kong WS, "The vertical distribution of air temperature and thermal amplitude of alpine plants on Mt. Halla, Cheju Island, Korea", J Korean Geo Soc, 34, pp.385~393 (1999)
- Kong WS, "Geoecology on the subalpine vegetation and landscape of Mt. Sorak", J Korean Geo Soc, 35, pp.177~187 (2000)
- Kong WS, "The Plant Geography of Korea with an Emphasis on the Alpine Zones" (1993), Kluwer Academic Publishers
- Körner C, "A re-assessment of high-elevation treeline positions and their explanation", Oecologia, 115, pp.445~459 (1998)
- Körner C, "Carbon limitation in trees", J Ecol, 91, pp.4~17 (2003)
- Körner C, "Alpine Treelines" (2012), Springer
- Körner C, "A world-wide study of high altitude treeline temperatures", J Biogeogr, 31, pp.713~732 (2004)
- Kreyling J, "Potential consequences of climate warming for tropical plant species in high mountains of southern Ethiopia", Divers Distrib, 16, pp.593~605 (2010)
- Kullman L, "20th century climate warming and treelimit rise in the southern Scandes of Sweden", Ambio, 30, pp.72~80 (2001)
- Kullman L, "Rapid recent range-margin rise of tree and shrub species in the Swedish Scandes", J Ecol, 90, pp.68~77 (2002)
- Kullman L, "Wind-conditioned 20th century decline of birch treeline vegetation in the Swedish Scandes", Arctic, 58, pp.286~294 (2005)
- Kullman L, "Tree line population monitoring of Pinus sylvestris in the Swedish Scandes, 1973–2005: implications for tree line theory and climate change ecology", J Ecol, 95, pp.41~52 (2007)
- Kullman L, "A richer, greener and smaller alpine world: review and projection of warming-induced plant cover change in the Swedish Scandes", Ambio, 39, pp.159~169 (2010)
- Kullman L, "One century of treeline change and stability - experiences from the Swedish Scandes", Landsc Online, 17, pp.1~31 (2010)
- Lenoir J, "A significant upward shift in plant species optimum elevation during the 20th century", Science, 320, pp.1768~1771 (2008)
- Leonelli G, "Detecting climatic treelines in the Italian Alps: The influence of geomorphological factors and of human impacts", Phys Geogr, 30, pp.338~352 (2009)
- Leonelli G, "Climate warming and the recent treeline shift in the European Alps: the role of geomorphological factors in highaltitude sites", Ambio, 40, pp.264~273 (2011)
- Li MH, "Mobile carbohydrates in Himalayan treeline trees I. Evidence for carbon gain limitation but not for growth limitation", Tree Physiol, 28, pp.1287~1296 (2008)
- Lloyd AH, "Recent changes in treeline forest distribution and structure in interior Alaska", Ecoscience, 10, pp.176~185 (2003)
- MacDonald GM, "Climate change and the northern Russian treeline zone", Phil Trans R Soc B, 363, pp.2285~2299 (2008)
- Macek P, "Morphological and ecophysiological traits shaping altitudinal distribution of three Polylepis treeline species in the dry tropical Andes", Acta Oecol, 35, pp.778~785 (2009)
- Malanson GP, "Complex responses to global change at alpine treeline", Phys Geogr, 22, pp.333~342 (2001)
- Malanson GP, "Alpine treeline of western North America: Linking organism-to-landscape dynamics", Phys Geogr, 28, pp.378~396 (2007)
- Malanson GP, "Mountain treelines: a roadmap for research orientation", Arct Antarc Alp Res, 43, pp.167~177 (2011)
- Marchand PJ, "Winter water relations of tree-line plant species on Mt. Washington, New Hampshire", Arct Alp Res, 10, pp.105~116 (1978)
- Mayer AL, "Grass trumps trees with fire", Science, 334, pp.188~189 (2011)
- Moen J, "Potential effects of climate change on treeline position in the Swedish mountains", Ecol Soc, 9, pp.16~ (2004)
- Moen J, "Factors structuring the treeline ecotone in Fennoscandia", Plant Ecol Divers, 1, pp.77~87 (2008)
- Motta R, "Growth trends and dynamics in subalpine forest stands in the Varaita Valley (Piedmont, Italy) and their relationships with human activities and global change", J Veg Sci, 12, pp.219~230 (2001)
- Murphy BP, "What controls the distribution of tropical forest and savanna?", Ecol Lett, 15, pp.748~758 (2012)
- Noble IR, "Interactions between tussock grass (Poa spp.) and Eucalyptus pauciflora seedlings near treeline in South-Eastern Australia", Oecologia, 45, pp.350~353 (1980)
- Noble IR, "A model of the responses of ecotones to climate change", Ecol Appl, 3, pp.396~403 (1993)
- Odion DC, "Alternative community states maintained by fire in the Klamath Mountains, USA", J Ecol, 98, pp.96~105 (2010)
- Odland A, "Interpretation of altitudinal gradients in South Central Norway based on vascular plants as environmental indicators", Ecol Indic, 9, pp.409~421 (2009)
- Pauli H, "Effects of climate change on mountain ecosystems - upward shifting of alpine plants", World Resource Review, 8, pp.382~390 (1996)
- Payette S, "Reconstruction of tree-line vegetation response to long-term climate change", Nature, 341, pp.429~432 (1989)
- Rada F, "Carbon and water balance in Polylepis sericea, a tropical treeline species", Trees, 10, pp.218~222 (1996)
- Resler LM, "Geomorphic controls of spatial pattern and process at alpine treeline", Prof Geogr, 58, pp.124~138 (2006)
- Richardson AD, "A review of the theories to explain Arctic and alpine treelines around the world", J Sustainable For, 28, pp.218~242 (2009)
- Rixen C, "Evidence of enhanced freezing damage in treeline plants during six years of CO2 enrichment and soil warming", Oikos, 121, pp.1532~1543 (2012)
- Sakai A, "Mechanism of desiccation damage of conifers wintering in soil-frozen areas", Ecology, 51, pp.657~664 (1970)
- Scheffer M, "Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems", Nature, 413, pp.591~596 (2001)
- Scherrer D, "Topographically controlled thermal-habitat differentiation buffers alpine plant diversity against climate warming", J Biogeogr, 38, pp.406~416 (2011)
- Schulze ED, "Wintertime photosynthesis of bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata) in White Mountains of California", Ecology, 48, pp.1044~1047 (1967)
- Scott AC, "Fire on Earth: An Introduction" (2014), John Wiley & Sons
- Scott PA, "Influences of wind and snow on northern tree-line environments at Churchill, Manitoba, Canada", Arctic, 46, pp.316~323 (1993)
- Shankman D, "Forest regeneration above tree limit depressed by fire in the Colorado Front Range", B Torrey Bot Club, 115, pp.272~279 (1988)
- Shi P, "End of season carbon supply status of woody species near the treeline in western China", Basic Appl Ecol, 7, pp.370~377 (2006)
- Shi P, "A test of the growth-limitation theory for alpine tree line formation in evergreen and deciduous taxa of the eastern Himalayas", Funct Ecol, 22, pp.213~220 (2008)
- Singh CP, "Monitoring the alpine treeline shift in parts of the Indian Himalayas using remote sensing", Curr Sci, 102, pp.559~562 (2012)
- Smith WK, "Another perspective on altitudinal limits of alpine timberlines", Tree Physiol, 23, pp.1101~1112 (2003)
- Smith WK, "The altitude of alpine treeline: a bellwether of climate change effects", Bot Rev, 75, pp.163~190 (2009)
- Smith-McKenna EK, "Cascading effects of feedbacks, disease, and climate change on alpine treeline dynamics", Environ Model Softw, 62, pp.85~96 (2014)
- Speed JDM, "Experimental evidence for herbivore limitation of the treeline", Ecology, 91, pp.3414~3420 (2010)
- Staver AC, "The global extent and determinants of savanna and forest as alternative biome states", Science, 334, pp.230~232 (2011)
- Stevens GC, "The causes of treeline", Annu Rev Ecol Syst, 22, pp.177~191 (1991)
- Stueve KM, "Postfire tree establishment patterns at the alpine treeline ecotone: Mount Rainier National Park, Washington, USA", J Veg Sci, 20, pp.107~120 (2009)
- Susiluoto S, "Effects of sink removal on transpiration at the treeline: implications for the growth limitation hypothesis", Environ Exp Bot, 60, pp.334~339 (2007)
- Sveinbjörnsson B, "North American and European treelines: external forces and internal processes controlling position", Ambio, 29, pp.388~395 (2000)
- Sveinbjörnsson B, "Treeline ecology of mountain birch in the Torneträsk area", Ecol Bull, 45, pp.65~70 (1996)
- Szeicz JM, "Recent white spruce dynamics at the subarctic alpine treeline of north-western Canada", J Ecol, 83, pp.873~885 (1995)
- Szerencsits E, "Swiss tree lines - a GIS-based approximation", Landsc Online, 28, pp.1~18 (2012)
- Telewski FW, "Wind and Trees", pp.237~263 (1995), Cambridge University Press
- Tomback DF, "Invasive pathogens at alpine treeline: complications and concerns", Phys Geogr, 28, pp.397~418 (2007)
- Tranquillini W., "Physiological Ecology of the Alpine Timber-line.Tree Existence at High Altitudes with Special References to the European Alps" (1979), Springer
- Wallentin G, "Understanding alpine tree line dynamics: an individual based model", Ecol Model, 218, pp.235~246 (2008)
- Walsh SJ, "Influence of snow patterns and snow avalanches on the alpine treeline ecotone", J Veg Sci, 5, pp.657~672 (1994)
- Walsh SJ, "Mapping, modeling, and visualization of the influences of geomorphic processes on the alpine treeline ecotone, Glacier National Park, MT, USA", Geomorphology, 53, pp.129~145 (2003)
- Walther G, "Plants in a warmer world", Perspect Plant Ecol Evol Syst, 6, pp.169~185 (2003)
- Walther GR, "Trends in the upward shift of alpine plants", J Veg Sci, 16, pp.541~548 (2005)
- Wang T, "Treeline dynamics in relation to climatic variability in the central Tianshan Mountains, northwestern China", Global Ecol Biogeogr, 15, pp.406~415 (2006)
- Wardle P, "Evidence for rising upper limits of four native New Zealand forest trees", New Zeal J Bot, 30, pp.303~314 (1992)
- Warman L, "Alternative stable states in Australia’s wet tropics: a theoretical framework for the field data and a field-case for the theory", Landsc Ecol, 24, pp.1~13 (2009)
- Wieser G, "Effects of atmospheric and climate change at the timberline of the Central European Alps", Ann For Sci, 66, pp.402~412 (2009)
- Wilson JB, "Positive-feedback Switches in Plant Communities" (1992), Academic Press
- Wood SW, "Alternative stable states and the role of fire–vegetation–soil feedbacks in the temperate wilderness of southwest Tasmania", Landsc Ecol, 27, pp.13~28 (2012)
- Wood SW, "Firescape ecology: how topography determines the contrasting distribution of fire and rain forest in the south-west of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area", J Biogeogr, 38, pp.1807~1820 (2011)
- Xu Z, "Effects of experimental warming on phenology, growth and gas exchange of treeline birch (Betula utilis) saplings, Eastern Tibetan Plateau, China", Eur J Forest Res, 131, pp.811~819 (2012)
- Zhang YJ, "The trend of tree line on the northern slope of Changbai Mountain", J For Res, 12, pp.97~100 (2001)
