Poetry, Emotionality and Enlightenment Neo-Confucian Influences on ‘Poetry-Chan’ in Ming ‘Loyalist’ Monastic Communities
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The idea that poetry can be identified with Chan constitutes one of the most iconic symbols of Chinese Buddhist literary theory. It is arguably most commonly associated with the view that indigenous genres of nature or reclusion poetry can be imbued with religious power, and in particular, the notion that conveying the serene ambience of a secluded setting can transmit the inner tranquility or 'stillness' of the enlightened poet. This view reflected beliefs about the type of environments conducive to Buddhist cultivation, and ostensibly sacrosanct Buddhist eremetic ideals. These factors were linked by some scholars to a tenet loosely associated with Mahāyāna Mind-Nature Theory - that stilling the phenomenal mind, principally through cultivating detachment from worldly affairs, can enable the practitioner to discern with clarity his primordial Buddha nature. During the 17th century, however, many new views on the Buddhist value of non-Buddhist poetry began to proliferate in some Buddhist monasteries. This trend arose against the backdrop of a chaotic period of dynastic transition, and was particularly prominent in Buddhist communities which featured many monks renowned for being loyal to the Ming dynasty, which was overthrown by the Manchu Qing. One view in particular marked a radical departure from the more conventional Buddhist emphasis on stillness and detachment - the notion that religious benefits can be derived from cathartic poems which depict traumatic events, and the intense emotional responses they evoke. The development of these new ideas was related to the formation of a new, syncretic Mind-Nature Theory paradigm, one whose core conceptual foundations were drawn from the famous Song neo-Confucian Zhu Xi's notion of 'the mutual incorporation (or interfusion) of stillness and (e)motion'. This theory was intimately connected in these monks’ writings with the idea that poetry's enlightening power stemmed from its facility for venting and modulating e-motion - in particular, its capacity to facilitate psychological amelioration and restore 'stillness' or mental tranquility for those living through trying times. This article examines the writings of four so-called 'loyalist' Chan monks who adapted Zhu's paradigm of the interfusion between stillness and motion to promote the idea that intense 'worldly' emotions, when expressed in poetic form, can have religious value for Buddhist disciples. The monks in question are: 1. the Caodong Tianjie lineage founder Juelang Daosheng, who first developed this rubric, and whose ideas will be the subject of special emphasis; 2. his principle disciple Fang Yizhi; 3. the Caodong Haichuang lineage leader Jinshi Dangui, and; 4. the Linji sect monk Jishan Chengjiu. In addition to discussing how the development and evolution of this rubric reflected the specificities of these authors' historical situation, I aim to show how this evolving model could be seen to constitute an approach to literature and emotionality that reflected the syncretic, humanist and socially engaged brand of Buddhism which was a prominent feature in the religious landscape of late imperial China.
Abstract
The idea that poetry can be identified with Chan constitutes one of the most iconic symbols of Chinese Buddhist literary theory. It is arguably most commonly associated with the view that indigenous genres of nature or reclusion poetry can be imbued with religious power, and in particular, the notion that conveying the serene ambience of a secluded setting can transmit the inner tranquility or 'stillness' of the enlightened poet. This view reflected beliefs about the type of environments conducive to Buddhist cultivation, and ostensibly sacrosanct Buddhist eremetic ideals. These factors were linked by some scholars to a tenet loosely associated with Mahāyāna Mind-Nature Theory - that stilling the phenomenal mind, principally through cultivating detachment from worldly affairs, can enable the practitioner to discern with clarity his primordial Buddha nature. During the 17th century, however, many new views on the Buddhist value of non-Buddhist poetry began to proliferate in some Buddhist monasteries. This trend arose against the backdrop of a chaotic period of dynastic transition, and was particularly prominent in Buddhist communities which featured many monks renowned for being loyal to the Ming dynasty, which was overthrown by the Manchu Qing. One view in particular marked a radical departure from the more conventional Buddhist emphasis on stillness and detachment - the notion that religious benefits can be derived from cathartic poems which depict traumatic events, and the intense emotional responses they evoke. The development of these new ideas was related to the formation of a new, syncretic Mind-Nature Theory paradigm, one whose core conceptual foundations were drawn from the famous Song neo-Confucian Zhu Xi's notion of 'the mutual incorporation (or interfusion) of stillness and (e)motion'. This theory was intimately connected in these monks’ writings with the idea that poetry's enlightening power stemmed from its facility for venting and modulating e-motion - in particular, its capacity to facilitate psychological amelioration and restore 'stillness' or mental tranquility for those living through trying times. This article examines the writings of four so-called 'loyalist' Chan monks who adapted Zhu's paradigm of the interfusion between stillness and motion to promote the idea that intense 'worldly' emotions, when expressed in poetic form, can have religious value for Buddhist disciples. The monks in question are: 1. the Caodong Tianjie lineage founder Juelang Daosheng, who first developed this rubric, and whose ideas will be the subject of special emphasis; 2. his principle disciple Fang Yizhi; 3. the Caodong Haichuang lineage leader Jinshi Dangui, and; 4. the Linji sect monk Jishan Chengjiu. In addition to discussing how the development and evolution of this rubric reflected the specificities of these authors' historical situation, I aim to show how this evolving model could be seen to constitute an approach to literature and emotionality that reflected the syncretic, humanist and socially engaged brand of Buddhism which was a prominent feature in the religious landscape of late imperial China.
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